Desempeño cognitivo y rendimiento académico: ¿cómo confluyen familia y escuela?
Desempeño cognitivo y rendimiento académico: ¿cómo confluyen familia y escuela?
Contenido principal del artículo
Resumen
Los niños ingresan en el Sistema Educativo con diferentes experiencias escolares, alcanzando también diferentes niveles de aprendizaje y resultados escolares. En este estudio, nuestra pretensión es comprender el impacto de la familia y de la escuela en el desempeño cognitivo y el rendimiento académico de los niños durante la educación primaria. La muestra se compone de 406 niños portugueses de preescolar y del 1° ciclo de Educación Primaria, con edades comprendidas entre los 4 y los 10 años. Por medio de modelo completo de ecuaciones estructurales, se observa que la variable latente familia (nivel de escolaridad y nivel socioeconómico) y la variable latente escuela (comunidad y tipo de escuela) tienen un impacto significativo en el rendimiento académico. No obstante, solo la familia presenta un impacto significativo en el desempeño cognitivo. Estos resultados sugieren que el impacto de la escuela en el cociente de inteligencia no es tan relevante en los primeros años o niveles escolares, donde la familia presenta mayor explicación de la varianza.
Citas
Ainscow, M., Chapman, C., Dyson, A., Gunter, H., Hall, D., Kerr, K., et al. (2010). Insight 2 --- Social inequality: Can schools narrow the gap? Macclesfield: British Educational Research Association.
Almeida, L. S., Guisade, M. A., Primi, R., & Lemos, G. (2008). Contribuciones del factor general y de los factores específicos en la relación entre inteligencia y rendimiento escolar. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 1(3), 16---25.
Álvarez, A., Suárez, N., Tuero, E., Núñez, J. C., Valle, A., & Regueiro, B. (2015). Implicación familiar, autoconcepto del adolescente y rendimiento académico. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 5(3), 293---311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1989/ejihpe.v5i3.133
Alves, A. F., Gomes, C. M. A., Martins, A., & Almeida, L. S. (2016). Social and cultural contexts change but intelligence persists as incisive to explain children’s academic achievement. Ponte International Scientific Researches Journal, 72, 70---89. http://dx.doi.org/10.21506/j.ponte.2016.9.6
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238---246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Bentler, P. M., & Bonnet, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(588---606).
Bracken, S. S., & Fischel, J. E. (2008). Family reading behavior and early literacy skills in preschool children from low-income backgrounds. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 45---67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10409280701838835
Bradley, R., & Corwyn, R. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371---399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233
Brito, L., & Almeida, L. S. (2009). Escala de Competências Cognitivas para Crianças --- ECCOs 4/10: Manual. Porto: Edição dos autores.
Brito, L., Almeida, L., Ferreira, A. I., & Guisande, M. A. (2011). Contribución de los procesos y contenidos a la diferenciación cognitiva en la infancia: Un estudio con escolares portugueses. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 34(3), 323---336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1174/021037011797238540
Burger, K. (2010). How does early childhood care and education affect cognitive development? An international review of the effects of early interventions for children from different social backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25, 140---165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.11.001
Cabrera, N., Shannon, J., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2007). Fathers’ influence on their children’s cognitive and emotional development: From toddlers to pre-k. Applied Development Science, 11(4), 208---213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 10888690701762100
Ceci, S. J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27(5), 703---722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.27.5.703
Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indices to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464---504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233---255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902 5
Cliffordson, C., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2008). Effects of age and schooling on intellectual performance: Estimates obtained from analysis of continuous variation in age and length of schooling. Intelligence, 36(2), 143---152. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.intell.2007.03.006
Coleman, J. S. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Deary, I., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13---21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
Downey, D. B. (2001). Number of siblings and intellectual development: The resource dilution explanation. American Psychologist, 56(6---7), 497---504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0003-066x.56.6-7.49
Eslava, M., Deaño, M., Alfonso, S., Conde, A., & García-Señorán, M. (2016). Family context and preschool learning. Journal of Family Studies, 22(2), 182---201. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1080/13229400.2015.1063445
Fernández-Zabala, A., Goñi, E., Camino, I., & Zulaika, L. M. (2016). Family and school context in school engagement. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9(2), 47---55.
Freitas, S., Simões, M. R., Alves, L., & Santana, I. (2012). Montreal cognitive assessment: Influence of sociodemographic and health variables. Archives of Neuropsychology, 27, 165---175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acr116
Goux, D., & Maurin, E. (2005). The effect of overcrowded housing on children’s performance at school. Journal of Public Economics, 89, 797---819. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco. 2004.06.005
Gustafsson, J. E. (2001). Schooling and intelligence: Effects of track of study on level and profile of cognitive abilities. International Education Journal, 2, 166---186.
Gutman, L. M., Sameroff, A. J., & Cole, R. (2003). Academic growth curve trajectories from the 1st grade to 12th grade: Effects of multiple social risk factors and preschool child factors. Development Psychology, 39(4), 777---790. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.4.777
Hailikari, T., Nevgi, A., & Komulainen, E. (2008). Academic self-beliefs and prior knowledge as predictors of student achievement in Mathematics: A structural model. Educational Psychology, 28(1), 59---71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 01443410701413753
Heyneman, S. (1986). The search for school effects in developing countries, 1966---86. Washington, DC: World Bank, Economic Development Institute.
Kloosterman, R., Notten, N., Tolsma, J., & Kraaykamp, G. (2011). The effects of parental reading socialization and early school involvement on children’s academic performance: A panel study of primary school pupils in the Netherlands. European Sociological Review, 27(3), 291---306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcq007
Lee, J., & Shute, V. (2010). Personal and social-contextual factors in K-12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist, September, 37---41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2010.493471
Lemos, G. C., Almeida, L., & Colom, R. (2011). Intelligence of adolescents is related to their parents’ educational level but not to family income. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 1062---1067. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.025
Lugo-Gil, J., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2008). Family resources and parenting quality: Links to children’s cognitive development across the first 3 years. Child Development, 79(4), 1065---1085. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01176.x
Magnuson, K. A., Meyers, M. K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2004). Inequality in preschool education and school readiness. American Educational Research Journal, 41(1), 115---157. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00028312041001115
Marôco, J. (2014). Análise de equac¸ões estruturais (2nd ed.). Pêro Pinheiro: ReportNumber.
Martínez, R. A., Martínez, R., & Pérez, M. H. (2004). Children’s school assessment: Implications for family-school partnerships. International Journal of Educational Research, 41(1), 24---39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2005.04.004
Martins, A. A., Alves, A. F., & Almeida, L. S. (2016). The factorial structure of cognitive abilities in childhood. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 38---45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.11.003
Mistry, R. S., Benner, A. D., Biesanz, J. C., Clark, S. L., & Howes, C. (2010). Family and social risk, and parental investments during the early childhood years as predictors of low-income children’s school readiness outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(4), 432---449. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.01.002
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998---2014). MPlus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67(2), 130---159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026699
Oostdam, R., & Hooge, E. (2013). Making the difference with active parenting; forming educational partnerships between parents and schools. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(2), 337---351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0117-6
Oxford, M. L., & Lee, J. O. (2011). The effect of family processes on school achievement as moderated by socioeconomic context. Journal of School Psychology, 49(5), 597---612. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011. 06.001
Phillipson, S. N. (2010). Modeling parental role in academic achievement: Comparing high-ability to low and average-ability students. Talent Development & Excellence, 2, 83---103.
Pomerantz, E. M., & Dong, W. (2006). Effects of mothers’ perceptions of children’s competence: The moderating role of mother’s theories of competence. Developmental Psychology, 42, 950---961. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.950
Primi, R., Ferrão, M. E., & Almeida, L. S. (2010). Fluid intelligence as a predictor of learning: A longitudinal multilevel approach applied to math. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 446---451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.05.001
Raikes, H., Pan, B. A., Luze, G., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Brooks-Gunn, J., Constantine, J., et al. (2006). Mother-child bookreading in low-income families: Correlates and outcomes during the first three years of life. Child Development, 77(4), 924---953. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00911.x
Regueiro, B., Rodríguez, S., Piñeiro, I., Estévez, I., Ferradás, M., & Suárez, N. (2015). Diferencias en la percepción de la implicación parental en los deberes escolares en función del nivel de motivación de los estudiantes. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 5(3), 313---323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1989/ejihpe.v5i3.134
Rindermann, H., Flores-Mendoza, C., & Mansur-Alves, M. (2010). Reciprocal effects between fluid and crystallized intelligence and their dependence on parents’ socioeconomic status and education. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 544---548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.07.002
Santos, D., & Primi, R. (2014). Desenvolvimento socioemocional e aprendizado escolar: Uma proposta de mensurac¸ão para apoiar políticas públicas. São Paulo: Instituto Ayrton Senna.
Schneeweis, N., Skirbekk, V., & Winter-Ebmer, R. (2014). Does education improve cognitive performance four decades after school completion? Demography, 51(2), 619---643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13524-014-0281-1
Soares, D. L., Lemos, G. C., Primi, R., & Almeida, L. S. (2015). The relationship between intelligence and academic achievement throughout middle school: The role of students’ prior academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 41, 73---78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.02.005
Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. (2006). Predicting school achievement from general cognitive ability, self-perceived ability and intrinsic value. Intelligence, 34, 363---374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.11.004
Steiger, J. H., Shapiro, A., & Browne, M. W. (1985). On the multivariate asymptotic distribution of sequential chi-square statistics. Psychometrika, 50(253---263).
Stelzl, I., Merz, F., Ehlers, T., & Remer, H. (1995). The effect of schooling on the development of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A quasi-experimental study. Intelligence, 21(3), 279---296. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(95)90018-7
Sternberg, R. J. (2012). Intelligence. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews --- Cognitive Science, 3(5), 501---511. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1193
Sternberg, R., Grigorenko, E., & Bundy, D. (2001). The predictive value of IQ. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47(1), 1---4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2001.0005
Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35, 401---426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.004
Sullivan, A. (2001). Cultural capital and educational attainment. Sociology, 35(4), 893---912. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0038038501035004006
Veiga, F., Galvão, D., Festas, I., & Taveira, C. (2012). Envolvimento dos alunos na escola: Relac¸ões com variáveis contextuais e pessoais --- Uma revisão da literatura. Psicologia, Educação e Cultura, XVI(2), 36---50.
Wang, M. C., Heartel, G. D., & Walberg, H. (1994). What helps students learn? Educational Leadership, 51(4), 74---79. ISSN: 0013-1784.
Wechsler, D. (2003). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Crianças-III: Manual. Lisboa: CEGOC.
Winne, P., & Nesbit, J. (2010). The psychology of academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 61(1), 653---678. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100348
Almeida, L. S., Guisade, M. A., Primi, R., & Lemos, G. (2008). Contribuciones del factor general y de los factores específicos en la relación entre inteligencia y rendimiento escolar. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 1(3), 16---25.
Álvarez, A., Suárez, N., Tuero, E., Núñez, J. C., Valle, A., & Regueiro, B. (2015). Implicación familiar, autoconcepto del adolescente y rendimiento académico. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 5(3), 293---311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1989/ejihpe.v5i3.133
Alves, A. F., Gomes, C. M. A., Martins, A., & Almeida, L. S. (2016). Social and cultural contexts change but intelligence persists as incisive to explain children’s academic achievement. Ponte International Scientific Researches Journal, 72, 70---89. http://dx.doi.org/10.21506/j.ponte.2016.9.6
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238---246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Bentler, P. M., & Bonnet, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(588---606).
Bracken, S. S., & Fischel, J. E. (2008). Family reading behavior and early literacy skills in preschool children from low-income backgrounds. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 45---67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10409280701838835
Bradley, R., & Corwyn, R. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371---399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233
Brito, L., & Almeida, L. S. (2009). Escala de Competências Cognitivas para Crianças --- ECCOs 4/10: Manual. Porto: Edição dos autores.
Brito, L., Almeida, L., Ferreira, A. I., & Guisande, M. A. (2011). Contribución de los procesos y contenidos a la diferenciación cognitiva en la infancia: Un estudio con escolares portugueses. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 34(3), 323---336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1174/021037011797238540
Burger, K. (2010). How does early childhood care and education affect cognitive development? An international review of the effects of early interventions for children from different social backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25, 140---165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.11.001
Cabrera, N., Shannon, J., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2007). Fathers’ influence on their children’s cognitive and emotional development: From toddlers to pre-k. Applied Development Science, 11(4), 208---213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 10888690701762100
Ceci, S. J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27(5), 703---722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.27.5.703
Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indices to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464---504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233---255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902 5
Cliffordson, C., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2008). Effects of age and schooling on intellectual performance: Estimates obtained from analysis of continuous variation in age and length of schooling. Intelligence, 36(2), 143---152. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.intell.2007.03.006
Coleman, J. S. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Deary, I., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13---21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
Downey, D. B. (2001). Number of siblings and intellectual development: The resource dilution explanation. American Psychologist, 56(6---7), 497---504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0003-066x.56.6-7.49
Eslava, M., Deaño, M., Alfonso, S., Conde, A., & García-Señorán, M. (2016). Family context and preschool learning. Journal of Family Studies, 22(2), 182---201. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1080/13229400.2015.1063445
Fernández-Zabala, A., Goñi, E., Camino, I., & Zulaika, L. M. (2016). Family and school context in school engagement. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9(2), 47---55.
Freitas, S., Simões, M. R., Alves, L., & Santana, I. (2012). Montreal cognitive assessment: Influence of sociodemographic and health variables. Archives of Neuropsychology, 27, 165---175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acr116
Goux, D., & Maurin, E. (2005). The effect of overcrowded housing on children’s performance at school. Journal of Public Economics, 89, 797---819. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco. 2004.06.005
Gustafsson, J. E. (2001). Schooling and intelligence: Effects of track of study on level and profile of cognitive abilities. International Education Journal, 2, 166---186.
Gutman, L. M., Sameroff, A. J., & Cole, R. (2003). Academic growth curve trajectories from the 1st grade to 12th grade: Effects of multiple social risk factors and preschool child factors. Development Psychology, 39(4), 777---790. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.4.777
Hailikari, T., Nevgi, A., & Komulainen, E. (2008). Academic self-beliefs and prior knowledge as predictors of student achievement in Mathematics: A structural model. Educational Psychology, 28(1), 59---71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 01443410701413753
Heyneman, S. (1986). The search for school effects in developing countries, 1966---86. Washington, DC: World Bank, Economic Development Institute.
Kloosterman, R., Notten, N., Tolsma, J., & Kraaykamp, G. (2011). The effects of parental reading socialization and early school involvement on children’s academic performance: A panel study of primary school pupils in the Netherlands. European Sociological Review, 27(3), 291---306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcq007
Lee, J., & Shute, V. (2010). Personal and social-contextual factors in K-12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist, September, 37---41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2010.493471
Lemos, G. C., Almeida, L., & Colom, R. (2011). Intelligence of adolescents is related to their parents’ educational level but not to family income. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 1062---1067. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.025
Lugo-Gil, J., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2008). Family resources and parenting quality: Links to children’s cognitive development across the first 3 years. Child Development, 79(4), 1065---1085. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01176.x
Magnuson, K. A., Meyers, M. K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2004). Inequality in preschool education and school readiness. American Educational Research Journal, 41(1), 115---157. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00028312041001115
Marôco, J. (2014). Análise de equac¸ões estruturais (2nd ed.). Pêro Pinheiro: ReportNumber.
Martínez, R. A., Martínez, R., & Pérez, M. H. (2004). Children’s school assessment: Implications for family-school partnerships. International Journal of Educational Research, 41(1), 24---39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2005.04.004
Martins, A. A., Alves, A. F., & Almeida, L. S. (2016). The factorial structure of cognitive abilities in childhood. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 38---45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.11.003
Mistry, R. S., Benner, A. D., Biesanz, J. C., Clark, S. L., & Howes, C. (2010). Family and social risk, and parental investments during the early childhood years as predictors of low-income children’s school readiness outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(4), 432---449. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.01.002
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998---2014). MPlus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67(2), 130---159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026699
Oostdam, R., & Hooge, E. (2013). Making the difference with active parenting; forming educational partnerships between parents and schools. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(2), 337---351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0117-6
Oxford, M. L., & Lee, J. O. (2011). The effect of family processes on school achievement as moderated by socioeconomic context. Journal of School Psychology, 49(5), 597---612. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011. 06.001
Phillipson, S. N. (2010). Modeling parental role in academic achievement: Comparing high-ability to low and average-ability students. Talent Development & Excellence, 2, 83---103.
Pomerantz, E. M., & Dong, W. (2006). Effects of mothers’ perceptions of children’s competence: The moderating role of mother’s theories of competence. Developmental Psychology, 42, 950---961. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.950
Primi, R., Ferrão, M. E., & Almeida, L. S. (2010). Fluid intelligence as a predictor of learning: A longitudinal multilevel approach applied to math. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 446---451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.05.001
Raikes, H., Pan, B. A., Luze, G., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Brooks-Gunn, J., Constantine, J., et al. (2006). Mother-child bookreading in low-income families: Correlates and outcomes during the first three years of life. Child Development, 77(4), 924---953. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00911.x
Regueiro, B., Rodríguez, S., Piñeiro, I., Estévez, I., Ferradás, M., & Suárez, N. (2015). Diferencias en la percepción de la implicación parental en los deberes escolares en función del nivel de motivación de los estudiantes. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 5(3), 313---323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1989/ejihpe.v5i3.134
Rindermann, H., Flores-Mendoza, C., & Mansur-Alves, M. (2010). Reciprocal effects between fluid and crystallized intelligence and their dependence on parents’ socioeconomic status and education. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 544---548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.07.002
Santos, D., & Primi, R. (2014). Desenvolvimento socioemocional e aprendizado escolar: Uma proposta de mensurac¸ão para apoiar políticas públicas. São Paulo: Instituto Ayrton Senna.
Schneeweis, N., Skirbekk, V., & Winter-Ebmer, R. (2014). Does education improve cognitive performance four decades after school completion? Demography, 51(2), 619---643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13524-014-0281-1
Soares, D. L., Lemos, G. C., Primi, R., & Almeida, L. S. (2015). The relationship between intelligence and academic achievement throughout middle school: The role of students’ prior academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 41, 73---78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.02.005
Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. (2006). Predicting school achievement from general cognitive ability, self-perceived ability and intrinsic value. Intelligence, 34, 363---374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.11.004
Steiger, J. H., Shapiro, A., & Browne, M. W. (1985). On the multivariate asymptotic distribution of sequential chi-square statistics. Psychometrika, 50(253---263).
Stelzl, I., Merz, F., Ehlers, T., & Remer, H. (1995). The effect of schooling on the development of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A quasi-experimental study. Intelligence, 21(3), 279---296. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(95)90018-7
Sternberg, R. J. (2012). Intelligence. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews --- Cognitive Science, 3(5), 501---511. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1193
Sternberg, R., Grigorenko, E., & Bundy, D. (2001). The predictive value of IQ. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47(1), 1---4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2001.0005
Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35, 401---426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.004
Sullivan, A. (2001). Cultural capital and educational attainment. Sociology, 35(4), 893---912. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0038038501035004006
Veiga, F., Galvão, D., Festas, I., & Taveira, C. (2012). Envolvimento dos alunos na escola: Relac¸ões com variáveis contextuais e pessoais --- Uma revisão da literatura. Psicologia, Educação e Cultura, XVI(2), 36---50.
Wang, M. C., Heartel, G. D., & Walberg, H. (1994). What helps students learn? Educational Leadership, 51(4), 74---79. ISSN: 0013-1784.
Wechsler, D. (2003). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Crianças-III: Manual. Lisboa: CEGOC.
Winne, P., & Nesbit, J. (2010). The psychology of academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 61(1), 653---678. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100348