Resiliencia, optimismo y burnout académico en estudiantes universitarios
Resiliencia, optimismo y burnout académico en estudiantes universitarios
Contenido principal del artículo
Resumen
En este estudio se analiza la relación entre la resiliencia, el optimismo disposicional y las dimensiones que constituyen el burnout académico (agotamiento emocional, cinismo y baja eficacia). Para ello, se evaluó a una muestra formada por 463 estudiantes de la Universidad de León. Se emplearon los siguientes instrumentos: Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (MBI-SS), 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (10-item CD-RISC) y Life Orientation Test Revised (LOT-R). Los resultados revelan que el burnout académico se relaciona significativamente con la resiliencia y el optimismo. Concretamente, la resiliencia se relaciona positivamente con la eficacia mientras que el optimismo se relaciona positivamente con la eficacia pero negativamente con el agotamiento. Además, la resiliencia predice la eficacia mientras que el optimismo predice el agotamiento. Sin embargo, el cinismo no se relaciona ni con la resiliencia ni con el optimismo. Por último, se contemplan las implicaciones de los resultados obtenidos para el diseño de programas de prevención del burnout académico en estudiantes universitarios.
Citas
Bresó, E., Schaufeli, W.B., y Salanova, M. (2011). Can a self-efficacy-based intervention decrease burnout, increase engagement, and enhance performance? A quasi-experimental study. Higher Education, 61, 339-355. doi: 10.1007/s10734-010-9334-6
Cabanach, R.G., Souto, A., Freire, C., y Ferradás, M.M. (2014). Relaciones entre autoestima y estresores percibidos en estudiantes universitarios. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 7, 43-57. doi: 10.1989/ejep.v7i1.151
Cabanach, R.G., Souto-Gestal, A., y Fernández, R. (2017). Perfiles de regulación emocional y estrés académico en estudiantes de fisioterapia. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 10, 57-67. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2017.07.002
Campbell-Sills, L., y Stein, M.B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the ConnorDavidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC): Validation of a 10-item measure of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 1019-1028. doi: 10.1002/jts.20271
Cano-García. F.J., Sanduvete-Chaves, S., Chacón-Moscoso, S., Rodríguez-Franco, L., GarcíaMartínez, J., Antuña-Bellerín, M.A., y Pérez-Gil, J.A. (2015). Factor structure of the Spanish version of the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R): Testing several models. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 15, 139-148. doi: 10.1016/j.ijchp.2015.01.003
Carver, C.S., y Scheier, M. (2014). Dispositional optimism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 293- 299. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2014.02.003
Connor, K.M., y Davidson, J.R. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18, 76-82. doi: 10.1002/da.10113
Dawson, M., y Pooley, J.A. (2013). Resilience: The role of optimism, perceived parental autonomy support and perceived social support in first year university students. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 1, 38-49. doi: 10.11114/jets.v1i2.137
Durán, A., Extremera, N., Rey, L., Fernández-Berrocal, P., y Montalbán, F.M. (2006). Predicting academic burnout and engagement in educational settings: Assessing the incremental validity of perceived emotional intelligence beyond perceived stress and general selfefficacy. Psicothema, 18, 158-164.
Esteban, M., Bernardo, A.B., Tuero, E., Cerezo, R., y Núñez, J.C. (2016). El contexto sí importa: identificación de relaciones entre el abandono de titulación y variables contextuales. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 79-88. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.06.001
Extremera, N., Durán, A., y Rey, L. (2007). Perceived emotional intelligence and dispositional optimism-pessimism: Analyzing their role in predicting psychological adjustment among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1069-1079. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.014
Feldman, D.B., y Kubota, M. (2015). Hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and academic achievement: Distinguishing constructs and levels of specificity in predicting college grade-point average. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 210-216. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.022
Ferrando, P.J., Chico, E., y Tous, J.M. (2002). Propiedades psicométricas del test de optimismo Life Orientation Test. Psicothema, 14, 673-680.
Garmezy, N. (1991). Resilience in children´s adaptation to negative life events and stressed environments. Pediatric Annals, 20, 459-466. doi: 10.3928/0090-4481-19910901-05
Gastaldi, F.G.M., Pasta, T., Longobardi, C., Prino, L.E., y Quaglia, R. (2014). La medición de la influencia del estrés y del burnout en la relación profesor-alumno. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 7, 17-28. doi: 10.1989/ejep.v7i1.149
Gratacós, G., y López-Jurado, M. (2016). Validación de la versión en español de la escala de los factores que influyen en la elección de los estudios de educación (FIT-choice). Revista de Educación, 372, 87-110. doi: 10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2015-372-316
Knowlden, A.P., Hackman, C.L., y Sharma, M. (2016). Lifestyle and mental health correlates of psychological distress in college students. Health Education Journal, 75, 370-382. doi: 10.1177/0017896915589421
Kristjánsson, K. (2012). Positive psychology and positive education: Old wine in new bottles? Educational Psychologist, 47, 86-105. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.610678
Leiter, M.P., y Maslach, C. (2016). Latent burnout profiles: A new approach to understanding the burnout experience. Burnout Research, 3, 89-100. doi: 10.1016/j.burn.2016.09.001
López, J., y García, J. (2011). Optimismo, pesimismo y realismo disposicional en emprendedores potenciales de base tecnológica. Psicothema, 23, 611-616.
Luthar, S. (1993). Methodological and conceptual issues in research on childhood resilence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 441-453. doi: 10.1111/j.1469- 7610.1993.tb01030.x
Martínez-Martí, M.L., y Ruch, W. (2017). Character strengths predict resilience over and above positive affect, self-efficacy, optimism, social support, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12, 110-119. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2016.1163403
Maslach, C., y Jackson, S.E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2, 99-113. doi: 10.1002/job.4030020205
Masten, A.S. (2001). Ordinary magic. Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227-238. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
Mendo-Lázaro, S., León, B., Felipe-Castaño, E., Polo, M.I., y Palacios-García, V. (2016). Evaluación de las habilidades sociales de estudiantes de Educación Social. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 21, 139-156. doi: 10.1387/RevPsicodidact.14031
Morales, F.M. (2017). Relaciones entre afrontamiento del estrés cotidiano, autoconcepto, habilidades sociales e inteligencia emocional. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 10, 41-48. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2017.04.001
Notario-Pacheco, B., Solera-Martínez, M., Serrano-Parra, M., Bartolomé-Gutiérrez, R., GarcíaCampayo, J. y Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. (2011). Reliability and validity of the Spanish version of the 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (10-item CD-RISC) in young adults. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9, 63-69. doi: 10.1186/1477-7525-9-63
Otero-López, J.M., Villardefrancos, E., Castro, C., y Santiago, M.J. (2014). Stress, positive personal variables and burnout: A path analytic approach. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 7, 95-106. doi: 10.1989/ejep.v7i2.182
Pino, T., Peñate, W., Fumero, A., Bethencourt, J.M., y Zambrano, S. (2016). La eficacia de la reexperimentación emocional: el papel del optimismo y la alexitimia. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 6, 193-205. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v6i3.179
Pozuelo-Carrascosa, D.P., Martínez-Vizcaíno, V., Sánchez-López, M., Bartolomé-Gutiérrez, R., Rodríguez-Martín, B., y Notario-Pacheco, B. (2017). Resilience as a mediator between cardiorespiratory fitness and mental health-related quality of life: A cross-sectional study. Nursing and Health Sciences, 19, 316-321. doi: 10.1111/nhs.12347
Richards, K.A., Levesque-Bristol, C., Templin, T.J., y Graber, K.C. (2016). The impact of resilience on role stressors and burnout in elementary and secondary teachers. Social Psychology of Education, 19, 511-536. doi: 10.1007/s11218-016-9346-x
Ríos-Risquez, M.I., Carrillo-García, C. y Sabuco-Tebar, E.L. (2014). Resiliencia, síndrome de quemarse por el trabajo y malestar psicológico en estudiantes de enfermería. Ansiedad y Estrés, 20, 115-126.
Ríos-Risquez, M.I., García-Izquierdo, M., Sabuco-Tebar, E.L., Carrillo-García, C., y MartínezRoche, M.E. (2016). An exploratory study of the relationship between resilience, academic burnout and psychological health in nursing students. Contemporary Nurse, 52, 430-439. doi: 10.1080/10376178.2016.1213648
Robins, T.G., Roberts, R.M., y Sarris, A. (2015). Burnout and engagement in health profession students: The relationships between study demands, study resources and personal resources. Australasian Journal of Organisational Psychology, 8, 1-13. doi: 10.1017/orp.2014.7
Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Ramos-Díaz, E., Madariaga, J.M., Arrivillaga, A., y Gelende, N. (2016). Steps in the construction and verification of an explanatory model of psychosocial adjustment. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 20-28. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.11.002
Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598-611.
Rutter, M. (2012). Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 335-344. doi: 10.1017/S0954579412000028
Salanova, M., Martínez, I.M., Bresó, E., Llorens, S., y Grau, R. (2005). Bienestar psicológico en estudiantes universitarios: facilitadores y obstaculizadores del desempeño académico. Anales de Psicología, 21, 170-180.
Salanova, M., Schaufeli, W., Martínez, I., y Bresó, E. (2010). How obstacles and facilitators predict academic performance: The mediating role of study burnout and engagement. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 23, 53-70. doi: 10.1080/10615800802609965
Schaufeli, W.B., Martínez, I., Marqués-Pinto, A., Salanova, M., y Bakker, A. (2002). Burnout and engagement in university students: A cross-national study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Studies, 33, 464-481. doi: 10.1177/0022022102033005003
Schaufeli, W.B., y Salanova, M. (2007). Efficacy or inefficacy, that’s the question: Burnout and work engagement, and their relationships with efficacy believes. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 20, 177-196. doi: 10.1080/10615800701217878
Schaufeli, W.B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., y Bakker, A. (2002). The measurement of burnout and engagement: A confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71-92. doi: 10.1023/A:1015630930326
Scheier, M., y Carver, C.S. (1985). Optimism, Coping, and Health: Assessment and Implication of Generalized Outcome Expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219
Scheier, M.F., Carver, C.S., y Bridges, M.W. (1994). Distinguising optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self mastery and self esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.67.6.1063
Seligman, M., y Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5
Snyder, C.R., y López, S.J. (2002). Handbook of Positive Psychology. Nueva York: Oxford University Press.
Uriarte, J.D. (2014). Resiliencia y Envejecimiento. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 4, 67-77. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v4i2.54
Villardefrancos, E., Santiago, M.J., Castro, C., Aché, S., y Otero-López, J.M. (2012). Estrés en profesores de enseñanza secundaria: un análisis desde el optimismo. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 2, 91-101. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v2i3.16
Vizoso, C., y Arias, O. (2016). Estresores académicos percibidos por estudiantes universitarios y su relación con el burnout y el rendimiento académicos. Anuario de Psicología, 46, 90-97. doi: 10.1016/j.anpsic.2016.07.006
Cabanach, R.G., Souto, A., Freire, C., y Ferradás, M.M. (2014). Relaciones entre autoestima y estresores percibidos en estudiantes universitarios. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 7, 43-57. doi: 10.1989/ejep.v7i1.151
Cabanach, R.G., Souto-Gestal, A., y Fernández, R. (2017). Perfiles de regulación emocional y estrés académico en estudiantes de fisioterapia. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 10, 57-67. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2017.07.002
Campbell-Sills, L., y Stein, M.B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the ConnorDavidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC): Validation of a 10-item measure of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 1019-1028. doi: 10.1002/jts.20271
Cano-García. F.J., Sanduvete-Chaves, S., Chacón-Moscoso, S., Rodríguez-Franco, L., GarcíaMartínez, J., Antuña-Bellerín, M.A., y Pérez-Gil, J.A. (2015). Factor structure of the Spanish version of the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R): Testing several models. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 15, 139-148. doi: 10.1016/j.ijchp.2015.01.003
Carver, C.S., y Scheier, M. (2014). Dispositional optimism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 293- 299. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2014.02.003
Connor, K.M., y Davidson, J.R. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18, 76-82. doi: 10.1002/da.10113
Dawson, M., y Pooley, J.A. (2013). Resilience: The role of optimism, perceived parental autonomy support and perceived social support in first year university students. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 1, 38-49. doi: 10.11114/jets.v1i2.137
Durán, A., Extremera, N., Rey, L., Fernández-Berrocal, P., y Montalbán, F.M. (2006). Predicting academic burnout and engagement in educational settings: Assessing the incremental validity of perceived emotional intelligence beyond perceived stress and general selfefficacy. Psicothema, 18, 158-164.
Esteban, M., Bernardo, A.B., Tuero, E., Cerezo, R., y Núñez, J.C. (2016). El contexto sí importa: identificación de relaciones entre el abandono de titulación y variables contextuales. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 79-88. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.06.001
Extremera, N., Durán, A., y Rey, L. (2007). Perceived emotional intelligence and dispositional optimism-pessimism: Analyzing their role in predicting psychological adjustment among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1069-1079. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.014
Feldman, D.B., y Kubota, M. (2015). Hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and academic achievement: Distinguishing constructs and levels of specificity in predicting college grade-point average. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 210-216. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.022
Ferrando, P.J., Chico, E., y Tous, J.M. (2002). Propiedades psicométricas del test de optimismo Life Orientation Test. Psicothema, 14, 673-680.
Garmezy, N. (1991). Resilience in children´s adaptation to negative life events and stressed environments. Pediatric Annals, 20, 459-466. doi: 10.3928/0090-4481-19910901-05
Gastaldi, F.G.M., Pasta, T., Longobardi, C., Prino, L.E., y Quaglia, R. (2014). La medición de la influencia del estrés y del burnout en la relación profesor-alumno. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 7, 17-28. doi: 10.1989/ejep.v7i1.149
Gratacós, G., y López-Jurado, M. (2016). Validación de la versión en español de la escala de los factores que influyen en la elección de los estudios de educación (FIT-choice). Revista de Educación, 372, 87-110. doi: 10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2015-372-316
Knowlden, A.P., Hackman, C.L., y Sharma, M. (2016). Lifestyle and mental health correlates of psychological distress in college students. Health Education Journal, 75, 370-382. doi: 10.1177/0017896915589421
Kristjánsson, K. (2012). Positive psychology and positive education: Old wine in new bottles? Educational Psychologist, 47, 86-105. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.610678
Leiter, M.P., y Maslach, C. (2016). Latent burnout profiles: A new approach to understanding the burnout experience. Burnout Research, 3, 89-100. doi: 10.1016/j.burn.2016.09.001
López, J., y García, J. (2011). Optimismo, pesimismo y realismo disposicional en emprendedores potenciales de base tecnológica. Psicothema, 23, 611-616.
Luthar, S. (1993). Methodological and conceptual issues in research on childhood resilence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 441-453. doi: 10.1111/j.1469- 7610.1993.tb01030.x
Martínez-Martí, M.L., y Ruch, W. (2017). Character strengths predict resilience over and above positive affect, self-efficacy, optimism, social support, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12, 110-119. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2016.1163403
Maslach, C., y Jackson, S.E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2, 99-113. doi: 10.1002/job.4030020205
Masten, A.S. (2001). Ordinary magic. Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227-238. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
Mendo-Lázaro, S., León, B., Felipe-Castaño, E., Polo, M.I., y Palacios-García, V. (2016). Evaluación de las habilidades sociales de estudiantes de Educación Social. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 21, 139-156. doi: 10.1387/RevPsicodidact.14031
Morales, F.M. (2017). Relaciones entre afrontamiento del estrés cotidiano, autoconcepto, habilidades sociales e inteligencia emocional. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 10, 41-48. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2017.04.001
Notario-Pacheco, B., Solera-Martínez, M., Serrano-Parra, M., Bartolomé-Gutiérrez, R., GarcíaCampayo, J. y Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. (2011). Reliability and validity of the Spanish version of the 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (10-item CD-RISC) in young adults. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9, 63-69. doi: 10.1186/1477-7525-9-63
Otero-López, J.M., Villardefrancos, E., Castro, C., y Santiago, M.J. (2014). Stress, positive personal variables and burnout: A path analytic approach. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 7, 95-106. doi: 10.1989/ejep.v7i2.182
Pino, T., Peñate, W., Fumero, A., Bethencourt, J.M., y Zambrano, S. (2016). La eficacia de la reexperimentación emocional: el papel del optimismo y la alexitimia. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 6, 193-205. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v6i3.179
Pozuelo-Carrascosa, D.P., Martínez-Vizcaíno, V., Sánchez-López, M., Bartolomé-Gutiérrez, R., Rodríguez-Martín, B., y Notario-Pacheco, B. (2017). Resilience as a mediator between cardiorespiratory fitness and mental health-related quality of life: A cross-sectional study. Nursing and Health Sciences, 19, 316-321. doi: 10.1111/nhs.12347
Richards, K.A., Levesque-Bristol, C., Templin, T.J., y Graber, K.C. (2016). The impact of resilience on role stressors and burnout in elementary and secondary teachers. Social Psychology of Education, 19, 511-536. doi: 10.1007/s11218-016-9346-x
Ríos-Risquez, M.I., Carrillo-García, C. y Sabuco-Tebar, E.L. (2014). Resiliencia, síndrome de quemarse por el trabajo y malestar psicológico en estudiantes de enfermería. Ansiedad y Estrés, 20, 115-126.
Ríos-Risquez, M.I., García-Izquierdo, M., Sabuco-Tebar, E.L., Carrillo-García, C., y MartínezRoche, M.E. (2016). An exploratory study of the relationship between resilience, academic burnout and psychological health in nursing students. Contemporary Nurse, 52, 430-439. doi: 10.1080/10376178.2016.1213648
Robins, T.G., Roberts, R.M., y Sarris, A. (2015). Burnout and engagement in health profession students: The relationships between study demands, study resources and personal resources. Australasian Journal of Organisational Psychology, 8, 1-13. doi: 10.1017/orp.2014.7
Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Ramos-Díaz, E., Madariaga, J.M., Arrivillaga, A., y Gelende, N. (2016). Steps in the construction and verification of an explanatory model of psychosocial adjustment. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 20-28. doi: 10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.11.002
Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598-611.
Rutter, M. (2012). Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 335-344. doi: 10.1017/S0954579412000028
Salanova, M., Martínez, I.M., Bresó, E., Llorens, S., y Grau, R. (2005). Bienestar psicológico en estudiantes universitarios: facilitadores y obstaculizadores del desempeño académico. Anales de Psicología, 21, 170-180.
Salanova, M., Schaufeli, W., Martínez, I., y Bresó, E. (2010). How obstacles and facilitators predict academic performance: The mediating role of study burnout and engagement. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 23, 53-70. doi: 10.1080/10615800802609965
Schaufeli, W.B., Martínez, I., Marqués-Pinto, A., Salanova, M., y Bakker, A. (2002). Burnout and engagement in university students: A cross-national study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Studies, 33, 464-481. doi: 10.1177/0022022102033005003
Schaufeli, W.B., y Salanova, M. (2007). Efficacy or inefficacy, that’s the question: Burnout and work engagement, and their relationships with efficacy believes. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 20, 177-196. doi: 10.1080/10615800701217878
Schaufeli, W.B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., y Bakker, A. (2002). The measurement of burnout and engagement: A confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71-92. doi: 10.1023/A:1015630930326
Scheier, M., y Carver, C.S. (1985). Optimism, Coping, and Health: Assessment and Implication of Generalized Outcome Expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219
Scheier, M.F., Carver, C.S., y Bridges, M.W. (1994). Distinguising optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self mastery and self esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.67.6.1063
Seligman, M., y Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5
Snyder, C.R., y López, S.J. (2002). Handbook of Positive Psychology. Nueva York: Oxford University Press.
Uriarte, J.D. (2014). Resiliencia y Envejecimiento. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 4, 67-77. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v4i2.54
Villardefrancos, E., Santiago, M.J., Castro, C., Aché, S., y Otero-López, J.M. (2012). Estrés en profesores de enseñanza secundaria: un análisis desde el optimismo. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 2, 91-101. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v2i3.16
Vizoso, C., y Arias, O. (2016). Estresores académicos percibidos por estudiantes universitarios y su relación con el burnout y el rendimiento académicos. Anuario de Psicología, 46, 90-97. doi: 10.1016/j.anpsic.2016.07.006