The context does matter: Relationship between abandoning university degree and contextual variables
The context does matter: Relationship between abandoning university degree and contextual variables
Main Article Content
Abstract
University dropout is a global problem that affects almost every university in the world and whose consequences affect not only to the development of the deserter, but also to the society in which one this lives. The European University Dropout Integrated Management Project (GUIDE), coordinated by the Polytechnic University of Madrid and implemented by 21 higher education institutions, assumes this approach and adopts among its lines of action, to develop the scientific knowledge of the problem. Thus the participating institutions have developed a parallel research, whose joint results are still being analyzed. The University of Oviedo, partner institution of the GUIDE project reported here the results obtained in this study. Descriptive, correlational and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) have been conducted on a sample of 1,311 subjects, identifying the variables that maintain relations with the phenomenon in different contexts. Between the results, the role of the variables related to the student are highlighted.
References
Abad, F. J., Colom, R., Juan-Espinosa, M., & García, L. F. (2003). Intelligence differentiation in adult samples. Intelligence, 31(2), 157---166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00141-1
Almeida, L. S., Guisande, M. A., Primi, R., & Lemos, G. C. (2008). Contribuciones del factor general y de los factores específicos en la relación entre inteligência y rendimiento escolar. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 1(3), 5---16.
Batey, M., & Furnham, A. (2006). Creativity, intelligence, and personality: A critical review of the scattered literature. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 132(4), 355---429. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/MONO.132.4.355-430
Bouchard, T. J. (2014). Genes, evolution and intelligence. Behavior Genetics, 44(6), 549---577. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s10519-014-9646-x
Brito, L., & Almeida, L. S. (2000). Escala de Competências Cognitivas para Crianças (ECCOs 4/7): Manual. Porto: Edição dos autores.
Brito, L., & Almeida, L. S. (2009). Escala de Competências Cognitivas para Crianças-ECCOs 4/10: Manual. Porto: Edição dos autores.
Brito, L., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, A., & Guisande, M. (2011). Contribución de los procesos y contenidos a la diferenciación cognitiva en la infancia: Un estudio con escolares portugueses. Infancia Y Aprendizaje, 34(3), 323---336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1174/021037011797238540
Campos, I. S., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, A. I., Martinez, L. F., & Ramalho, G. (2013). Cognitive processes and math performance: A study with children at third grade of basic education. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(2), 421---436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0121-x
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factoranalytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth and action. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Chen, H., & Zhu, J. (2012). Measurement invariance of WISCIV across normative and clinical samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 161---166. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.006
Coyle, T. R., & Rindermann, H. (2013). Spearman’s law of diminishing returns and national ability. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(4), 406---410. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.023
Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13---21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
Facon, B. (2006). Does age moderate the effect of IQ on the differentiation of cognitive abilities during childhood? Intelligence, 34(6), 375---386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.intell.2005.12.003
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39---50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3151312
Garrett, H. E. (1946). A developmental theory of intelligence. The American Psychologist, 1(9), 372---378. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/h0056380
Horn, J. L., & Noll, J. (1997). Human cognitive capabilities: Gf-Gc theory. In D. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theory, tests and issues (pp. 49---91). New York: The Guilford Press.
Jensen, A. R. (2003). Regularities in Spearman’s law of diminishing returns. Intelligence, 31(2), 95---105. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00094-0
Johnson, W., & Bouchard, T. J. (2005). The structure of human intelligence: It is verbal, perceptual, and image rotation (VPR), not fluid and crystallized. Intelligence, 33(4), 393---416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2004.12.002
Johnson, W., Nijenhuis, J. T., & Bouchard, T. J. (2008). Still just 1 g: Consistent results from five test batteries. Intelligence, 36(1), 81---95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2007.06.001
Juan-Espinosa, M., Cuevas, L., Escorial, S., & García, L. F. (2006). Testing the indifferentiation hypothesis during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167(1), 5---15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/GNTP.167.1. 5-15
Juan-Espinosa, M., García, L. F., Escorial, S., Rebollo, I., Colom, R., & Abad, F. J. (2002). Age dedifferentiation hypothesis: Evidence from the WAIS III. Intelligence, 30(5), 395---408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00092-2
Kane, H. D., & Brand, C. R. (2006). The variable importance of general intelligence (g) in the cognitive abilities of children and adolescents. Educational Psychology, 26(6), 751---767. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410500390897
Kane, H. D., Oakland, T. D., & Brand, C. R. (2006). Differentiation at higher levels of cognitive ability: Evidence from the United States. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167(3), 327---341. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/GNTP.167.3.327-341
Keith, T. Z., Fine, J. G., Taub, G. E., Reynolds, M. R., & Kranzler, J. H. (2006). Higher order, multisample, confirmatory factor analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition: What does it measure? School Psychology Review, 35(1), 108---127.
Keith, T. Z., & Reynolds, M. R. (2010). Cattell---Horn---Carroll abilities and cognitive tests: What we’ve learned from 20 years of research. Psychology in the Schools, 47(7), 635---650. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pits
Kim, K. H., Cramond, B., & VanTassel-Baska, J. (2010). The relationship between creativity and intelligence. In J. C. Kaufman, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of creativity (pp. 395---412). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: The Guilford Press.
Kvist, A., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2008). The relation between fluid intelligence and the general factor as a function of cultural background: A test of Cattell’s Investmenttheory. Intelligence, 36(5), 422---436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2007.08.004
Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. B. (2004). Transformations in the couplings among intellectual abilities and constituent cognitive processes across the life span. Psychological Science, 15(3), 155---163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503003.x
Marôco, J. (2014). Análise de equac¸ões estruturais: Fundamentos teóricos, software e aplicac¸ões (2a ed.). Pêro Pinheiro: ReportNumber.
McArdle, J. J., Hamagami, F., Meredith, W., & Bradway, K. P. (2000). Modeling the dynamic hypotheses of Gf-Gc theory using longitudinal life-span data. Learning and Individual Differences, 12(1), 53---79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1041-6080(00)00036-4
McGrew, K. S. (2005). The Cattell---Horn---Carroll theory of cognitive abilities: Past, present, and future. In D. P. Flanagan, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (2nd ed., pp. 136---181). New York: Guilford.
Molenaar, D., Dolan, C. V., Wicherts, J. M., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010). Modeling differentiation of cognitive abilities within the higher-order factor model using moderated factor analysis. Intelligence, 38(6), 611---624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.intell.2010.09.002
Primi, R., Ferrão, M. E., & Almeida, L. S. (2010). Fluid intelligence as a predictor of learning: A longitudinal multilevel approach applied to math. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 446---451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.05.001
Reynolds, M. R., & Keith, T. Z. (2007). Spearman’s law of diminishing returns in hierarchical models of intelligence for children and adolescents. Intelligence, 35(3), 267---281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.002
Reynolds, M. R., Keith, T. Z., & Beretvas, S. N. (2010). Use of factor mixture modeling to capture Spearman’s law of diminishing returns. Intelligence, 38(2), 231---241. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.01.002
Rietveld, M. J. H., Dolan, C. V., van Baal, G. C. M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2003). A twin study of differentiation of cognitive abilities in childhood. Behavior Genetics, 33(4), 367---381. http://dx.doi. org/10.1023/A:1025388908177
Roid, G. H., Prifitera, A., & Weiss, L. G. (1993). Factor struture in an independent sample. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment (WISC-III Monograph), 6---21.
Runco, M. A. (2007). Creativity. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Seabra-Santos, M. J., Simões, M. R., Albuquerque, C. P., Pereira, M. P., Almeida, L. S., & Lopes, A. F. (2006). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para a Idade Pré-Escolar e Primária-Forma Revista (WPPSI-R). In M. M. Gonçalves, M. R. Simões, L. S. Almeida, & C. Machado (Eds.), Avaliação psicológica: Instrumentos validados para a população portuguesa (2a ed., pp. 177---197). Coimbra: Quarteto.
Simões, M. R., Seabra-Santos, M. J., Albuquerque, C. P., Pereira, M., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, C., Lopes, A. F., Gomes, A. A., Xavier, R. E., Rodrigues, F., Lança, C., SanJuan, L., & Oliveira, E. (2006). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Crianças --- Terceira Edição (WISC-III). In M. M. Gonçalves, M. R. Simões, L. S. Almeida, & C. Machado (Eds.), Avaliação psicológica: Instrumentos validados para a população portuguesa (2a ed., pp. 199---232). Coimbra: Quarteto Editora.
Soares, D. L., Lemos, G. C., Primi, R., & Almeida, L. S. (2015). The relationship between intelligence and academic achievement throughout middle school: The role of students’ prior academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 41(1), 73---78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.02.005
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man. New York: MacMillan.
Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. (2006). Predicting school achievement from general cognitive ability, self-perceived ability, and intrinsic value. Intelligence, 34(4), 363---374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.11.004
Tideman, E., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2004). Age-related differentiation of cognitive abilities in ages 3---7. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(8), 1965---1974. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2003.09.004
Tusing, M. E., & Ford, L. (2004). Examining preschool cognitive abilities using a CHC framework. International Journal of Testing, 4(2), 91---114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327574ijt0402 1
Vernon, P. E. (1961). The structure of human abilities (2nd ed.). London: Methuen.
Voelkle, M. C., Wittmann, W. W., & Ackerman, P. L. (2006). Abilities and skill acquisition: A latent growth curve approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 16(4), 303---319. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.lindif.2006.01.001
Watkins, M. W., Lei, P. W., & Canivez, G. L. (2007). Psychometric intelligence and achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Intelligence, 35(1), 59---68. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.intell.2006.04.005
Wechsler, D. (2003a). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para a Idade Pré-escolar e Primária-Edição Revista (WPPSI-R): Manual --- [Adaptação Portuguesa]. Lisboa: Cegoc.
Wechsler, D. (2003b). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Crianças-Terceira Edição (WISC-III): Manual. --- [Adaptação portuguesa]. Lisboa: Cegoc.
Wechsler, D. (2005). WISC-IV: Escala de inteligencia de Wechsler para niños IV. Madrid, Spain: TEA Ediciones.
Wechsler, S. M. (2009). Age and gender impact on thinking and creating styles. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 2(1), 37---48.
Woodcock, R. W. (2002). New looks in the assessment of cognitive ability. Peabody Journal of Education, 77(2), 6---22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327930PJE7702
Almeida, L. S., Guisande, M. A., Primi, R., & Lemos, G. C. (2008). Contribuciones del factor general y de los factores específicos en la relación entre inteligência y rendimiento escolar. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 1(3), 5---16.
Batey, M., & Furnham, A. (2006). Creativity, intelligence, and personality: A critical review of the scattered literature. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 132(4), 355---429. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/MONO.132.4.355-430
Bouchard, T. J. (2014). Genes, evolution and intelligence. Behavior Genetics, 44(6), 549---577. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s10519-014-9646-x
Brito, L., & Almeida, L. S. (2000). Escala de Competências Cognitivas para Crianças (ECCOs 4/7): Manual. Porto: Edição dos autores.
Brito, L., & Almeida, L. S. (2009). Escala de Competências Cognitivas para Crianças-ECCOs 4/10: Manual. Porto: Edição dos autores.
Brito, L., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, A., & Guisande, M. (2011). Contribución de los procesos y contenidos a la diferenciación cognitiva en la infancia: Un estudio con escolares portugueses. Infancia Y Aprendizaje, 34(3), 323---336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1174/021037011797238540
Campos, I. S., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, A. I., Martinez, L. F., & Ramalho, G. (2013). Cognitive processes and math performance: A study with children at third grade of basic education. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(2), 421---436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0121-x
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factoranalytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth and action. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Chen, H., & Zhu, J. (2012). Measurement invariance of WISCIV across normative and clinical samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 161---166. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.006
Coyle, T. R., & Rindermann, H. (2013). Spearman’s law of diminishing returns and national ability. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(4), 406---410. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.023
Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13---21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
Facon, B. (2006). Does age moderate the effect of IQ on the differentiation of cognitive abilities during childhood? Intelligence, 34(6), 375---386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.intell.2005.12.003
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39---50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3151312
Garrett, H. E. (1946). A developmental theory of intelligence. The American Psychologist, 1(9), 372---378. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/h0056380
Horn, J. L., & Noll, J. (1997). Human cognitive capabilities: Gf-Gc theory. In D. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theory, tests and issues (pp. 49---91). New York: The Guilford Press.
Jensen, A. R. (2003). Regularities in Spearman’s law of diminishing returns. Intelligence, 31(2), 95---105. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00094-0
Johnson, W., & Bouchard, T. J. (2005). The structure of human intelligence: It is verbal, perceptual, and image rotation (VPR), not fluid and crystallized. Intelligence, 33(4), 393---416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2004.12.002
Johnson, W., Nijenhuis, J. T., & Bouchard, T. J. (2008). Still just 1 g: Consistent results from five test batteries. Intelligence, 36(1), 81---95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2007.06.001
Juan-Espinosa, M., Cuevas, L., Escorial, S., & García, L. F. (2006). Testing the indifferentiation hypothesis during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167(1), 5---15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/GNTP.167.1. 5-15
Juan-Espinosa, M., García, L. F., Escorial, S., Rebollo, I., Colom, R., & Abad, F. J. (2002). Age dedifferentiation hypothesis: Evidence from the WAIS III. Intelligence, 30(5), 395---408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00092-2
Kane, H. D., & Brand, C. R. (2006). The variable importance of general intelligence (g) in the cognitive abilities of children and adolescents. Educational Psychology, 26(6), 751---767. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410500390897
Kane, H. D., Oakland, T. D., & Brand, C. R. (2006). Differentiation at higher levels of cognitive ability: Evidence from the United States. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167(3), 327---341. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/GNTP.167.3.327-341
Keith, T. Z., Fine, J. G., Taub, G. E., Reynolds, M. R., & Kranzler, J. H. (2006). Higher order, multisample, confirmatory factor analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition: What does it measure? School Psychology Review, 35(1), 108---127.
Keith, T. Z., & Reynolds, M. R. (2010). Cattell---Horn---Carroll abilities and cognitive tests: What we’ve learned from 20 years of research. Psychology in the Schools, 47(7), 635---650. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pits
Kim, K. H., Cramond, B., & VanTassel-Baska, J. (2010). The relationship between creativity and intelligence. In J. C. Kaufman, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of creativity (pp. 395---412). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: The Guilford Press.
Kvist, A., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2008). The relation between fluid intelligence and the general factor as a function of cultural background: A test of Cattell’s Investmenttheory. Intelligence, 36(5), 422---436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2007.08.004
Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. B. (2004). Transformations in the couplings among intellectual abilities and constituent cognitive processes across the life span. Psychological Science, 15(3), 155---163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503003.x
Marôco, J. (2014). Análise de equac¸ões estruturais: Fundamentos teóricos, software e aplicac¸ões (2a ed.). Pêro Pinheiro: ReportNumber.
McArdle, J. J., Hamagami, F., Meredith, W., & Bradway, K. P. (2000). Modeling the dynamic hypotheses of Gf-Gc theory using longitudinal life-span data. Learning and Individual Differences, 12(1), 53---79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1041-6080(00)00036-4
McGrew, K. S. (2005). The Cattell---Horn---Carroll theory of cognitive abilities: Past, present, and future. In D. P. Flanagan, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (2nd ed., pp. 136---181). New York: Guilford.
Molenaar, D., Dolan, C. V., Wicherts, J. M., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010). Modeling differentiation of cognitive abilities within the higher-order factor model using moderated factor analysis. Intelligence, 38(6), 611---624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.intell.2010.09.002
Primi, R., Ferrão, M. E., & Almeida, L. S. (2010). Fluid intelligence as a predictor of learning: A longitudinal multilevel approach applied to math. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 446---451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.05.001
Reynolds, M. R., & Keith, T. Z. (2007). Spearman’s law of diminishing returns in hierarchical models of intelligence for children and adolescents. Intelligence, 35(3), 267---281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.002
Reynolds, M. R., Keith, T. Z., & Beretvas, S. N. (2010). Use of factor mixture modeling to capture Spearman’s law of diminishing returns. Intelligence, 38(2), 231---241. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.01.002
Rietveld, M. J. H., Dolan, C. V., van Baal, G. C. M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2003). A twin study of differentiation of cognitive abilities in childhood. Behavior Genetics, 33(4), 367---381. http://dx.doi. org/10.1023/A:1025388908177
Roid, G. H., Prifitera, A., & Weiss, L. G. (1993). Factor struture in an independent sample. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment (WISC-III Monograph), 6---21.
Runco, M. A. (2007). Creativity. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Seabra-Santos, M. J., Simões, M. R., Albuquerque, C. P., Pereira, M. P., Almeida, L. S., & Lopes, A. F. (2006). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para a Idade Pré-Escolar e Primária-Forma Revista (WPPSI-R). In M. M. Gonçalves, M. R. Simões, L. S. Almeida, & C. Machado (Eds.), Avaliação psicológica: Instrumentos validados para a população portuguesa (2a ed., pp. 177---197). Coimbra: Quarteto.
Simões, M. R., Seabra-Santos, M. J., Albuquerque, C. P., Pereira, M., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, C., Lopes, A. F., Gomes, A. A., Xavier, R. E., Rodrigues, F., Lança, C., SanJuan, L., & Oliveira, E. (2006). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Crianças --- Terceira Edição (WISC-III). In M. M. Gonçalves, M. R. Simões, L. S. Almeida, & C. Machado (Eds.), Avaliação psicológica: Instrumentos validados para a população portuguesa (2a ed., pp. 199---232). Coimbra: Quarteto Editora.
Soares, D. L., Lemos, G. C., Primi, R., & Almeida, L. S. (2015). The relationship between intelligence and academic achievement throughout middle school: The role of students’ prior academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 41(1), 73---78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.02.005
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man. New York: MacMillan.
Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. (2006). Predicting school achievement from general cognitive ability, self-perceived ability, and intrinsic value. Intelligence, 34(4), 363---374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.11.004
Tideman, E., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2004). Age-related differentiation of cognitive abilities in ages 3---7. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(8), 1965---1974. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2003.09.004
Tusing, M. E., & Ford, L. (2004). Examining preschool cognitive abilities using a CHC framework. International Journal of Testing, 4(2), 91---114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327574ijt0402 1
Vernon, P. E. (1961). The structure of human abilities (2nd ed.). London: Methuen.
Voelkle, M. C., Wittmann, W. W., & Ackerman, P. L. (2006). Abilities and skill acquisition: A latent growth curve approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 16(4), 303---319. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.lindif.2006.01.001
Watkins, M. W., Lei, P. W., & Canivez, G. L. (2007). Psychometric intelligence and achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Intelligence, 35(1), 59---68. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.intell.2006.04.005
Wechsler, D. (2003a). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para a Idade Pré-escolar e Primária-Edição Revista (WPPSI-R): Manual --- [Adaptação Portuguesa]. Lisboa: Cegoc.
Wechsler, D. (2003b). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Crianças-Terceira Edição (WISC-III): Manual. --- [Adaptação portuguesa]. Lisboa: Cegoc.
Wechsler, D. (2005). WISC-IV: Escala de inteligencia de Wechsler para niños IV. Madrid, Spain: TEA Ediciones.
Wechsler, S. M. (2009). Age and gender impact on thinking and creating styles. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 2(1), 37---48.
Woodcock, R. W. (2002). New looks in the assessment of cognitive ability. Peabody Journal of Education, 77(2), 6---22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327930PJE7702