Adult temperament styles: a network analysis of their relationships with the Big Five Personality Model
Adult temperament styles: a network analysis of their relationships with the Big Five Personality Model
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study investigated the connectivity structure among temperament styles and Big Five personality factors using network analysis. The temporal stability of temperament styles was also investigated. This study utilized two samples of Brazilian participants, the first for the network analysis and the second to investigate the stability of temperament styles. The first sample consists of 149 adults (57% women) ages 18 to 66 (M=32; SD=9.92), the second of 88 individuals (56% women) ranging from 18 to 41 years-of-age (M=23; SD=5.79). Results confirmed that temperament styles measured by the Inventory of Adult Temperament Styles formed networks with personality factors measured by the BFP. Community analysis indicated the presence of four clusters. Estimates of test-retest reliability were statistically significant. In conclusion, temperament styles are stable and can be conceived as a network of traits associated with personality.
References
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Bachert, C.M.D., Wechsler, S.M., & Machado, W.L. (2016). Construção e validação do inventário de estilos de temperamento do professor [Construction and validation of teachers’ inventory of temperamento styles]. Psico, 47, 56-67. doi:10.15448/1980-8623.2016.1.20158
Barros, L., Goes, A.R., & Pereira, A.I. (2015). Parental self-regulation, emotional regulation and temperament: Implications for intervention. Estudos de Psicologia, 32, 295-306. doi:10.1590/0103-166X2015000200013
Benson, N., Oakland, T., & Shermis, N. (2009). Cross-national invariance of children’s temperament. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 3-16. doi:10.1177/0734282908318563
Canals, J., Hernández-Martínez, C., & Fernández-Ballart, J.D. (2011). Relationships between early behavioural characteristics and temperament at 6 years. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 152-160.
Capraro, R.M., & Capraro, M.M. (2002). Myers-Briggs indicator score reliability across studies: a meta-analytic reliability generalization study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62, 590-602. doi:10.1177/0013164402062004004
Casalin, S., Luyten, P., Vliegens, N., & Meurs, P. (2012). The structure and stability of temperament from infancy to toddlerhood: A one-year prospective study. Infant Behavior & Development, 35, 94-108. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.08.004
Cassiano, R.G.M., & Linhares, M.B.M. (2015). Temperamento, prematuridade e comportamento interativo mãe-criança [Temperament, prematurity and mother-child interactive behavior]. Psicologia, Reflexao e Critica, 28(2), 416-424. doi:10.1590/1678-7153.201528222
Callueng, C., & Oakland, T. (2014). If you don’t know the child’s temperament you do not know the child. Estudos de Psicologia, 31, 3-13. doi:10.1590/0103-166X2014000100001
Cattell, R.B., & Kline, P. (1977). The scientific analysis of personality and motivation. In D.T. Lykken (Series Ed.), Personality and psychopathology: A series of monographs, texts, and treatises. New York: Academic Press.
Chen, J., & Chen, Z. (2008). Extended Bayesian information criteria for model selection with large model spaces. Biometrika, 95, 759-771.
Costantini, G., Epskamp, S., Borsboom, D., Perugini, M., Mõttus, R., Waldorp, L.J., & Cramer, A.O. (2014). State of the art personality research: A tutorial on network analysis of personality data in R. Journal of Research in Personality, 54, 13-29.
Cramer, A.O.J., van der Sluis, S., Noordhof, A., Wicherts, M., Geschwind, N., Aggen, S.H., Kendler, K.S., & Borsboom, D. (2012). Dimensions of normal personality as networks in search of equilibrium: You can’t like parties if you don’t like people. European Journal of Personality, 26, 414-431.
Cloninger, C.R., & Cloninger, K.M. (2011). Development of instruments and evaluative procedures on contributors to illness and health. International Journal of Person Centered Medicine, 1, 456–459. doi:10.5750/ijpcm.v1i3.99
Cloninger, C.R. (2012). The psychological costs and benefits of being highly persistent: Personality profiles distinguish mood disorders from anxiety disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136, 758-766. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.046
Costa, P.T., & McCrae, R.R. (1985). Revised NEO Personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five Personality Five factor inventory (NEO-FFI). Professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resource.
De Pauw, S.W., Mervielde, I., Van Leeuwen, K.G., & De Clercq, B.J. (2011). How temperament and personality contribute to the maladjustmente of children with autism. Autism Developmental Disorders, 41, 196-212.
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Friedman, J., Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. (2008). Sparse inverse covariance estimation with the graphical lasso. Biostatistics, 9(3), 432-441.
Fruchterman, T.M.J. & Reingold, E.M. (1991). Graph drawing by force-directed placement. Software–Practice and Experience, 12, 1129-1164.
Furnham, A., Moutafi, J., & Crump, J. (2003). The relationships between the revised NeoPersonality Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Social Behavior and Personality, 31(6), 574-584. doi:10.2224/sbp.2003.31.6.577.
Hutz, C.S., Nunes, C.H.S.S., Silveira, A.D., Serra, J., Anton, M., & Wieczorek, L.S. (1998). O desenvolvimento dos marcadores para avaliação da personalidade no modelo dos cincos grandes fatores [The development of personality marks based on the five factor model]. Psicologia, Reflexão e Critica, 11, 395-409. doi:10.1590/S0102-79721998000200015
Jung, C.G. (1971). Psychological types (R.F.C. Hull, Revision & H.G. Baynes, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published in 1921).
Ito, P.P., & Guzzo, R.S.L. (2002). Temperamento: características e determinação genética [Temperament: characteristics and genetic determination]. Psicologia, Reflexão e Crítica, 15(2), 425-436. doi:10.1590/S0102-79722002000200019
Lauritzen, S.L. (1996). Graphical models. Clarendon Press: Oxford, UK.
Martin, C.R. (2015). Highlights from the past ten years and coming changes for the Journal of Psychological Type. Journal of Psychological Type, 75, 1-6.
McCrae, R.R. (2011). Personality Theories for the 21st Century. Teaching of Psychology, 38, 209- 214. doi:10.1177/0098628311411785
McCrae, R. (2013). Exploring trait assessment of samples, persons and cultures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95, 556-570. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.821075.
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (1989). Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type indicator from the perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Journal of Personality, 57, 1-38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00759.x
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (2003). Personality In adulthood- a five-factor theory perspective (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
McCrae, R.R., Costa, P.T., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Hrebickova, M., Avia, M., & Smith, P.B. (2000). Nature versus nurture: temperament, personality and life span development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 173-186. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.173
Mpofu, E., Oakland, T., Mhaka, M., & Gwirayi, P. (2010). Temperament styles in Zimbabwean early adolescents: A Rasch measurement model analysis. South African Journal of Psychology, 40(1), 44-53. doi:10.1177/008124631004000105
Myers, I.B., & McCaulley, M.H. (1985). Manual; A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Myers, I.B., McCaulley, M.H., Quenk, N.L., & Hammer, A.L. (1998). MBTI Manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs type indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Newman, M.E.J. (2010). Networks: An introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nielson, R. (2012). A historical review of the styles literature. In Zhang, Sternberg, & Rayner (Eds.). Handbook of intellectual styles: Preferences in cognition, learning and thinking (pp. 21-46). New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Nunes, C.H.S.S., Hutz, C.S., & Nunes, M.F.O. (2010). Bateria Fatorial de Personalidade-BFP [Personality Factor Battery- BFP]. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo.
Nunes, M.F.O., & Noronha, A.P.P. (2009). Interesse e Personalidade: um estudo com adolescentes em orientação profissional [Interest and personality: a study with adolescentes in professional orientation. Revista Galego-Portuguesa de Psicologia y Educación, 17(1,2), 115-129.
Nunes, C.H.S.S., Hutz, C.S., & Giacomoni, C.H. (2009). Associação entre bem estar subjetivo e personalidade no modelo dos cinco grandes fatores. [Associations among subjective wellbeing and personality according to Big-5 factors]. Avaliacao Psicologica, 8(1), 99-108.
Oakland, T., Glutting, J.J., & Horton, C.B. (1996). Student Styles Questionnaire. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Oakland, T., Stafford, M., Horton, C., & Glutting, J. (2001). Temperament and vocational preferences: Age, gender, and racial-ethnic comparisons using the Student Styles Questionnaire. Journal of Career Assessment, 9, 297-314. doi:10.1177/106907270100900306
Oakland, T., & Wechsler, S.M (2012). Inventário de temperamento para adultos [Adult Temperament Inventory]. Campinas: Laboratorio de Avaliação e Medidas Psicológicas.
Pittenger, D.J. (2005). Cautionary comments regarding the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 57, 210-221. doi:10.1037/1065-9293.57.3.210
Primi, R., Wechsler, S.M., Nakano, T.C., Oakland, T., & Guzzo, R.S.L. (2014). Using itemresponse theory methods with the Brazilian Temperament Scale for Students. Journal of Psycho-Educational Assessment, 32(7), 651-662. doi:10.1177/0734282914528613
Reichardt, J., & Bornholdt, S. (2006). Statistical mechanics of communitydetection. Physical Review, 7(1), 016-110. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.74.016110
Reynierse, J. (2012). Toward an empirically sound and radically revised type theory. Journal of Psychological Type, 72, 1-24.
Rothbart, M.K., Ahadi, S.A., & Evans, D.E. (2000). Temperament and personality: origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 122-135. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.122
Rothbart, M.K., Sheese, B.D., Rueda, M.R., & Posner, M.I. (2011). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation in early life. Emotion Review, 3, 207-213. doi:10.1177/1754073910387943
Rowinski, T., Cieciuch, J., & Oakland, T. (2013). The factorial structure of four temperament styles and measuring invariance across gender and age groups. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 32(1), 77-82. doi:10.1177/0734282913487045
Sistema de avaliação de testes psicológicos-SATEPSI (2017). Testes favoráveis [Approved tests]. Recuperado em janeiro 2017 http://satepsi.cfp.org.br/listaTesteFavoravel.cfm
Salter, D.W., Forney, D.S., & Evans, N.J. (2005). Two approaches to examining the stability of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Score. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 37, 208-219.
Schmittmann, V.D., Cramer, A.O.J., Waldorp, L.J., Epskamp, S., Kievit, R.A., & Borsboom, D. (2013). Deconstructing the construct: A network perspective on psychological phenomena. New Ideas in Psychology, 31(1), 43-53.
Strelau, J., & Zawadzki, B. (2011). Fearfulness and anxiety inresearch on temperament: Temperamental traits are related o anxiety disorders. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 907-915. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.008
Slobodskaya, H.R., & Kozlova, E.A. (2016).Early temperament as a predictor of later personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 127–132. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.094
Thomas, A. & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Vicent, M., Inglés, C.J., Gonzálvez, C., Sanmartín, R., & Fernández, J.M.G. (2016). Perfeccionismo socialmente prescrito y los cinco grandes rasgos de la personalidad en niños españoles. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 6(2), 107-118. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v6i2.162
Walters, G. (2011). Childhood temperament: Dimensions or types? Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1168-1173. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.014
Wechsler, S.M., Benson, N., Oakland, T., & Lourenconi, M.A. (2014). Factor structure of the adult temperament styles. Psicologia, Reflexão e Critica, 25, 599-606. doi:10.1590/1678-7153.201427412
Zannon, C., Bastianello, M., Pacico, J.C., & Hutz, C. (2013). Relationships between positive and negative affect and the five factors of personality in a Brazilian sample. Paideia, 56, 285- 293. doi:10.1590/1982-43272356201302
Bachert, C.M.D., Wechsler, S.M., & Machado, W.L. (2016). Construção e validação do inventário de estilos de temperamento do professor [Construction and validation of teachers’ inventory of temperamento styles]. Psico, 47, 56-67. doi:10.15448/1980-8623.2016.1.20158
Barros, L., Goes, A.R., & Pereira, A.I. (2015). Parental self-regulation, emotional regulation and temperament: Implications for intervention. Estudos de Psicologia, 32, 295-306. doi:10.1590/0103-166X2015000200013
Benson, N., Oakland, T., & Shermis, N. (2009). Cross-national invariance of children’s temperament. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 3-16. doi:10.1177/0734282908318563
Canals, J., Hernández-Martínez, C., & Fernández-Ballart, J.D. (2011). Relationships between early behavioural characteristics and temperament at 6 years. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 152-160.
Capraro, R.M., & Capraro, M.M. (2002). Myers-Briggs indicator score reliability across studies: a meta-analytic reliability generalization study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62, 590-602. doi:10.1177/0013164402062004004
Casalin, S., Luyten, P., Vliegens, N., & Meurs, P. (2012). The structure and stability of temperament from infancy to toddlerhood: A one-year prospective study. Infant Behavior & Development, 35, 94-108. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.08.004
Cassiano, R.G.M., & Linhares, M.B.M. (2015). Temperamento, prematuridade e comportamento interativo mãe-criança [Temperament, prematurity and mother-child interactive behavior]. Psicologia, Reflexao e Critica, 28(2), 416-424. doi:10.1590/1678-7153.201528222
Callueng, C., & Oakland, T. (2014). If you don’t know the child’s temperament you do not know the child. Estudos de Psicologia, 31, 3-13. doi:10.1590/0103-166X2014000100001
Cattell, R.B., & Kline, P. (1977). The scientific analysis of personality and motivation. In D.T. Lykken (Series Ed.), Personality and psychopathology: A series of monographs, texts, and treatises. New York: Academic Press.
Chen, J., & Chen, Z. (2008). Extended Bayesian information criteria for model selection with large model spaces. Biometrika, 95, 759-771.
Costantini, G., Epskamp, S., Borsboom, D., Perugini, M., Mõttus, R., Waldorp, L.J., & Cramer, A.O. (2014). State of the art personality research: A tutorial on network analysis of personality data in R. Journal of Research in Personality, 54, 13-29.
Cramer, A.O.J., van der Sluis, S., Noordhof, A., Wicherts, M., Geschwind, N., Aggen, S.H., Kendler, K.S., & Borsboom, D. (2012). Dimensions of normal personality as networks in search of equilibrium: You can’t like parties if you don’t like people. European Journal of Personality, 26, 414-431.
Cloninger, C.R., & Cloninger, K.M. (2011). Development of instruments and evaluative procedures on contributors to illness and health. International Journal of Person Centered Medicine, 1, 456–459. doi:10.5750/ijpcm.v1i3.99
Cloninger, C.R. (2012). The psychological costs and benefits of being highly persistent: Personality profiles distinguish mood disorders from anxiety disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136, 758-766. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.046
Costa, P.T., & McCrae, R.R. (1985). Revised NEO Personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five Personality Five factor inventory (NEO-FFI). Professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resource.
De Pauw, S.W., Mervielde, I., Van Leeuwen, K.G., & De Clercq, B.J. (2011). How temperament and personality contribute to the maladjustmente of children with autism. Autism Developmental Disorders, 41, 196-212.
De Raad, B., Barelds, D.P.H., Levert, E., Ostendorf, R., Mla?i?, B., Di Blas, L, H?ebí?kova´, M., Szirmák, Z., Szarota, P., Perugini, M., Church, T.A., & Katigbak, M.S. (2010). Only three factors of personality description are fully replicable across languages: a comparison of 14 trait taxonomies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(1), 160–173. doi:10.1037/a0017184
Friedman, J., Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. (2008). Sparse inverse covariance estimation with the graphical lasso. Biostatistics, 9(3), 432-441.
Fruchterman, T.M.J. & Reingold, E.M. (1991). Graph drawing by force-directed placement. Software–Practice and Experience, 12, 1129-1164.
Furnham, A., Moutafi, J., & Crump, J. (2003). The relationships between the revised NeoPersonality Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Social Behavior and Personality, 31(6), 574-584. doi:10.2224/sbp.2003.31.6.577.
Hutz, C.S., Nunes, C.H.S.S., Silveira, A.D., Serra, J., Anton, M., & Wieczorek, L.S. (1998). O desenvolvimento dos marcadores para avaliação da personalidade no modelo dos cincos grandes fatores [The development of personality marks based on the five factor model]. Psicologia, Reflexão e Critica, 11, 395-409. doi:10.1590/S0102-79721998000200015
Jung, C.G. (1971). Psychological types (R.F.C. Hull, Revision & H.G. Baynes, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published in 1921).
Ito, P.P., & Guzzo, R.S.L. (2002). Temperamento: características e determinação genética [Temperament: characteristics and genetic determination]. Psicologia, Reflexão e Crítica, 15(2), 425-436. doi:10.1590/S0102-79722002000200019
Lauritzen, S.L. (1996). Graphical models. Clarendon Press: Oxford, UK.
Martin, C.R. (2015). Highlights from the past ten years and coming changes for the Journal of Psychological Type. Journal of Psychological Type, 75, 1-6.
McCrae, R.R. (2011). Personality Theories for the 21st Century. Teaching of Psychology, 38, 209- 214. doi:10.1177/0098628311411785
McCrae, R. (2013). Exploring trait assessment of samples, persons and cultures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95, 556-570. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.821075.
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (1989). Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type indicator from the perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Journal of Personality, 57, 1-38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00759.x
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (2003). Personality In adulthood- a five-factor theory perspective (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
McCrae, R.R., Costa, P.T., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Hrebickova, M., Avia, M., & Smith, P.B. (2000). Nature versus nurture: temperament, personality and life span development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 173-186. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.173
Mpofu, E., Oakland, T., Mhaka, M., & Gwirayi, P. (2010). Temperament styles in Zimbabwean early adolescents: A Rasch measurement model analysis. South African Journal of Psychology, 40(1), 44-53. doi:10.1177/008124631004000105
Myers, I.B., & McCaulley, M.H. (1985). Manual; A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Myers, I.B., McCaulley, M.H., Quenk, N.L., & Hammer, A.L. (1998). MBTI Manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs type indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Newman, M.E.J. (2010). Networks: An introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nielson, R. (2012). A historical review of the styles literature. In Zhang, Sternberg, & Rayner (Eds.). Handbook of intellectual styles: Preferences in cognition, learning and thinking (pp. 21-46). New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Nunes, C.H.S.S., Hutz, C.S., & Nunes, M.F.O. (2010). Bateria Fatorial de Personalidade-BFP [Personality Factor Battery- BFP]. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo.
Nunes, M.F.O., & Noronha, A.P.P. (2009). Interesse e Personalidade: um estudo com adolescentes em orientação profissional [Interest and personality: a study with adolescentes in professional orientation. Revista Galego-Portuguesa de Psicologia y Educación, 17(1,2), 115-129.
Nunes, C.H.S.S., Hutz, C.S., & Giacomoni, C.H. (2009). Associação entre bem estar subjetivo e personalidade no modelo dos cinco grandes fatores. [Associations among subjective wellbeing and personality according to Big-5 factors]. Avaliacao Psicologica, 8(1), 99-108.
Oakland, T., Glutting, J.J., & Horton, C.B. (1996). Student Styles Questionnaire. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Oakland, T., Stafford, M., Horton, C., & Glutting, J. (2001). Temperament and vocational preferences: Age, gender, and racial-ethnic comparisons using the Student Styles Questionnaire. Journal of Career Assessment, 9, 297-314. doi:10.1177/106907270100900306
Oakland, T., & Wechsler, S.M (2012). Inventário de temperamento para adultos [Adult Temperament Inventory]. Campinas: Laboratorio de Avaliação e Medidas Psicológicas.
Pittenger, D.J. (2005). Cautionary comments regarding the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 57, 210-221. doi:10.1037/1065-9293.57.3.210
Primi, R., Wechsler, S.M., Nakano, T.C., Oakland, T., & Guzzo, R.S.L. (2014). Using itemresponse theory methods with the Brazilian Temperament Scale for Students. Journal of Psycho-Educational Assessment, 32(7), 651-662. doi:10.1177/0734282914528613
Reichardt, J., & Bornholdt, S. (2006). Statistical mechanics of communitydetection. Physical Review, 7(1), 016-110. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.74.016110
Reynierse, J. (2012). Toward an empirically sound and radically revised type theory. Journal of Psychological Type, 72, 1-24.
Rothbart, M.K., Ahadi, S.A., & Evans, D.E. (2000). Temperament and personality: origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 122-135. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.122
Rothbart, M.K., Sheese, B.D., Rueda, M.R., & Posner, M.I. (2011). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation in early life. Emotion Review, 3, 207-213. doi:10.1177/1754073910387943
Rowinski, T., Cieciuch, J., & Oakland, T. (2013). The factorial structure of four temperament styles and measuring invariance across gender and age groups. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 32(1), 77-82. doi:10.1177/0734282913487045
Sistema de avaliação de testes psicológicos-SATEPSI (2017). Testes favoráveis [Approved tests]. Recuperado em janeiro 2017 http://satepsi.cfp.org.br/listaTesteFavoravel.cfm
Salter, D.W., Forney, D.S., & Evans, N.J. (2005). Two approaches to examining the stability of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Score. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 37, 208-219.
Schmittmann, V.D., Cramer, A.O.J., Waldorp, L.J., Epskamp, S., Kievit, R.A., & Borsboom, D. (2013). Deconstructing the construct: A network perspective on psychological phenomena. New Ideas in Psychology, 31(1), 43-53.
Strelau, J., & Zawadzki, B. (2011). Fearfulness and anxiety inresearch on temperament: Temperamental traits are related o anxiety disorders. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 907-915. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.008
Slobodskaya, H.R., & Kozlova, E.A. (2016).Early temperament as a predictor of later personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 127–132. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.094
Thomas, A. & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Vicent, M., Inglés, C.J., Gonzálvez, C., Sanmartín, R., & Fernández, J.M.G. (2016). Perfeccionismo socialmente prescrito y los cinco grandes rasgos de la personalidad en niños españoles. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 6(2), 107-118. doi: 10.1989/ejihpe.v6i2.162
Walters, G. (2011). Childhood temperament: Dimensions or types? Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1168-1173. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.014
Wechsler, S.M., Benson, N., Oakland, T., & Lourenconi, M.A. (2014). Factor structure of the adult temperament styles. Psicologia, Reflexão e Critica, 25, 599-606. doi:10.1590/1678-7153.201427412
Zannon, C., Bastianello, M., Pacico, J.C., & Hutz, C. (2013). Relationships between positive and negative affect and the five factors of personality in a Brazilian sample. Paideia, 56, 285- 293. doi:10.1590/1982-43272356201302