Diferencias sexuales en prejuicio sexual. El contacto como variable mediadora
Diferencias sexuales en prejuicio sexual. El contacto como variable mediadora
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Resumo
El presente artículo analiza la relación entre el sexo y la nacionalidad, y el prejuicio hacia hombres gay y lesbianas, y el rechazo de padres del mismo sexo, en España y Chile. Los participantes fueron estudiantes universitarios (N=491). Los resultados señalan que los hombres son más prejuiciosos que las mujeres, y los participantes chilenos mostraron más prejuicio que los participantes españoles. Además, las diferencias sexuales en actitudes hacia las lesbianas y los hombres gay, y las diferencias por nacionalidad, estuvieron mediadas por la variable contacto. Las diferencias en nacionalidad respecto a las actitudes hacia los padres del mismo sexo (escala de oposición normativa) estuvieron completamente mediadas. Esta subescala operacionaliza el constructo de heterosexismo hacia familias con padres del mismo sexo, y es bastante difícil de intervenir en este constructo social para reducir el prejuicio. Los hallazgos de este estudio pueden tener importantes implicaciones para reducir el prejuicio sexual. Conocer, interactuar y fomentar relaciones entre los miembros del exogrupo y del endogrupo puede reducir las diferencias debidas al sexo y la nacionalidad.
Referências
Ahrold, T.K. & Meston, C.M. (2010). Ethnic differences in sexual attitudes of US college students: Gender, acculturation, and religiosity factors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 190-202. doi:10.1007=s10508-008-9406-1.
Allport, G.W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Boston: Beacon Press.
Baron R.M. & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.
Barrientos, J., Cardenas, M., Gomez, F. & Frías-Navarro, D. (2012) Assessing the dimensionality
of Beliefs about Children?s Adjustment in Same-Sex Families Scale (BCASSFS) in Chile. Sexuality and Social Policy, 10, 43-51. doi:10.1007=s13178-012-0107-0.
Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional (2013). Ley núm. 20.609. [Law n° 20.609] Retrieved July 22, 2013 from: http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1042092
Cardenas, M. & Barrientos, J. (2008). The attitudes toward lesbians and gay men scale (ATLG):
adaptation and testing the reliability and validity in Chile. Journal of Sex Research, 45, 140-149. doi.org/10.1080/00224490801987424
Cirako?lu, O.C. (2006). Perception of homosexuality among Turkish university students: the roles of labels, gender, and prior contact. Journal of Social Psychology, 146, 293-305. doi:10.3200/SOCP.146.3.293-305
Collier, K.L., Bos, H.M.W. & Sandfort, T.G.M. (2012). Intergroup contact, attitudes toward homosexuality, and the role of acceptance of gender non-conformity in young adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 899-907. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.12.010
Cooley, J J. & Burkholder, G.J. (2011). Using Video and Contact to Change Attitudes Toward Gay Men and Lesbians. Journal of Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences, 5, 83-90. doi:
10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.08
Curran, P.J., West, S.G. & Finch, J. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16-29. doi:10.1037=1082-989X.1.1.16
D?Augelli, A.R. (1989). Lesbians? and gay men?s experiences of discrimination and harassment in a university community. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 317-321. doi: 10.1007/BF00931039
D'Augelli, A.R. & Rose, M.L. (1990). Homophobia in a university community: Attitudes and experiences of heterosexual freshman. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 484491.
Ellis, S.J., Kitzinger, C. & Wilkinson, S. (2002). Attitudes towards lesbians and gay men and support for human rights among psychology students. Journal of Homosexuality, 44, 121-138. doi: 10.1300/J082v44n01_07.
Frías-Navarro, D. (2009). Beliefs About Children?s Adjustment in Same- Sex Families Scale
(BCASSFS). University of Valencia, Spain. Retrieved from http://www.uv.es/friasnav/Scale_Items14.pdf
Frías-Navarro, D. (2011). Técnica estadística y diseño de investigación [Technical statistics and research design]. Valencia (Spain): Palmero Ediciones
Frías-Navarro, D. & Monterde-i-Bort, H. (2012) A Scale on Beliefs about Children's Adjustment in Same-Sex Families: Reliability and Validity. Journal of Homosexuality, 59, 12731288. doi: 10.1080/00918369.2012.720505.
Frías-Navarro, D., Monterde-i-Bort, H., Pascual-Soler, M. & Badenes-Ribera, L. (2013). Etiology of homosexuality and attitudes toward same-sex parenting: Results from a randomized study. Journal of Sex Research. In press. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2013.802757.
Gentry, C.S. (1987). Social distance regarding male and female homosexuals. Journal of Social Psychology, 127, 199-208. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1987.9713680.
Heinze, J.E. & Horn, S.S. (2009). Intergroup contact and beliefs about homosexuality in Adolescence. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 38, 937-951. doi:10.1007/s10964-0099408-x
Herek, G.M. (1984). Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: A factor-analytic study. Journal of Homosexuality, 10, 39-51. http://dx.doi:.org/10.1300/J082v10n01_03
Herek, G.M. (1988). Heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: Correlates and gender differences. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 451-477. http://dx.doi:.org/10.1080/00224498809551476
Herek, G.M. (1994). Assessing heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: A review of empirical research with the ATLG scale. En B. Greene y G.M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 206-228). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Herek, G.M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 9, 19-22. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00051
Herek, G.M. (2002). Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66, 40-66. doi: 10.1086/338409
Herek, G.M. & Capitanio, J. (1996). Some of my best friends: intergroup contact, concealable
stigma, and heterosexuals? attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 412-424. doi:10.1177/0146167296224007
Hinrichs, D. & Rosenberg, P. (2002). Attitudes toward gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons among heterosexual liberal art college students. Journal of Homosexuality, 43, 61-84. doi: 10.1300/J082v43n01_04.
Judd, C.M. & Kenny, D.A. (1981). Estimating the effects for social intervention. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Kerns, J.G. & Fine, M.A. (1994). The relation between gender and negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians: Do gender role attitudes mediate this relation? Sex Roles, 31, 297-307. doi: 10.1007/BF01544590
King, B. & Black, K. (1999). Extent of relational stigmatization of lesbian and their children by heterosexual collage students. Journal of Homosexuality, 37, 65-81. doi: 10.1300/J082v37n02_04
Kite, M.E. (1984). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuals: A meta-analysis review. Journal of Homosexuality, 10(1-2), 69-81.
Kite, M.E. (1992). Individual differences in males? reactions to gay males and lesbians. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1222-1239. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb02362.x
Kite, M.E. (1994). When perceptions meet reality: Individual differences in reactions to lesbians and gay men. In B. Greene, Beverly and G.M. Herek (Eds), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications. Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues, Vol. 1 (pp. 25-53). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications.
Kite, M.E. & Whitley Jr., B.E. (1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336-353. doi:10.1177/0146167296224002.
LaMar, L., & Kite, M. (1998). Sex differences in attitudes toward gay men and lesbians: A multidimensional perspective. Journal of Sex Research, 35, 189-196. doi: 10.1080/00224499809551932.
Lehavot, K. & Lambert, A.J. (2007). Toward a greater understanding of antigay prejudice: On the role of sexual orientation and gender role violation. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 3, 279-292. doi: 10.1080/01973530701503390
Lim, V.K. (2002). Gender differences and attitudes towards homosexuality. Journal of Homosexuality, 43, 85-97. doi: 10.1300/J082v43n01_05.
Lingiardi, V., Falanga, S. & D?Augelli, A. (2005). The evaluation of homophobia in an Italian sample. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 81-93. doi: 10.1007/s10508-005-1002-z.
MacKinnon, D.P. & Dwyer, J.H. (1993). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Review, 17, 144-158. doi: 10.1177/0193841X9301700202.
Mazziotta, A., Mummendey, A. & Wright, S. (2011). Vicarious intergroup contact effects: Applying social-cognitive theory to intergroup contact research. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14, 255-274. doi: 10.1177/1368430210390533.
Monterde-i-Bort Pascual-Llobell, J. & Frias-Navarro, D. (2006). Interpretation mistakes in statistical methods: Their importance and some recommendations. Psicothema, 18, 848856.
Moskowitz, D.A., Rieger, G. & Roloff, M.E. (2010). Heterosexual attitudes toward same-sex marriage. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 325-336. doi: 10.1080/00918360903489176.
Navarro, M.D.F., Llobell, J.P. & Perez, J.F.G. (2000). Effect size and statistical significance. Psicothema, 12, 236-240.
Nierman, A.J., Thompson, S.C., Bryan, A. & Mahaffey, A.L. (2007). Gender role beliefs and attitudes towards lesbians and gay men in Chile and the U.S. Sex Roles, 57, 61-67. doi:
10.1007/s11199-007-9197-1.
Pew Research Center (2013) The Global Divide on Homosexuality. Greater Acceptance in More
Secular and Affluent Countries. Retrieved from
http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/06/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Homosexuality-ReportFINAL-JUNE-4-2013.pdf
Raja, S. & Stokes, J.P. (1998). Assessing attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: The Modern Homophobia Scale. Journal of Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Identity, 3, 113-134. doi:10.1023/A:1023244427281.
Rhoads, R.A. (1995). Learning from the coming-out experiences of college males. Journal of College Student Development, 36, 67-74.
Sanford, M. & Engstrom, C.M. (1995). Attitudes toward gay and lesbian students: An investigation of resident advisors. Journal of College and University Student Housing, 25, 26-30.
Schellenberg, E.G., Hirt, J. & Sears, A. (1999). Attitudes toward homosexuals among students at a Canadian university. Sex Roles, 40, 139-152. doi: 10.1023/A:1018838602905
Simoni, J.M. (1996). Pathways to prejudice: Predicting students? heterosexist attitudes with demographics, self-esteem, and contact with lesbians and gay men. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 68-78.
Smith, S.J., Axelton, A.M. & Saucier, D.A. (2009). The effects of contact on sexual prejudice: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 61, 178-191. doi:10.1007/s11199–009-9627–3
Sobel, M.E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological Methodology (pp. 290-312). Washington DC: American Sociological Association.
Whitley, B.E. (1988). Sex differences in heterosexuals? attitudes toward homosexuals: It depends upon what you ask. Journal of Sex Research, 24, 287-291. doi: 10.1080/00224498809551426
Yarber, W.L. & Lee, B. (1983). Heterosexuals? attitudes toward lesbians and male homosexuality: Their affective orientation toward sexuality and sex guilt. Journal of College Health, 31, 203-208. doi: 10.1080/07448481.1983.9939558.
Allport, G.W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Boston: Beacon Press.
Baron R.M. & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.
Barrientos, J., Cardenas, M., Gomez, F. & Frías-Navarro, D. (2012) Assessing the dimensionality
of Beliefs about Children?s Adjustment in Same-Sex Families Scale (BCASSFS) in Chile. Sexuality and Social Policy, 10, 43-51. doi:10.1007=s13178-012-0107-0.
Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional (2013). Ley núm. 20.609. [Law n° 20.609] Retrieved July 22, 2013 from: http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1042092
Cardenas, M. & Barrientos, J. (2008). The attitudes toward lesbians and gay men scale (ATLG):
adaptation and testing the reliability and validity in Chile. Journal of Sex Research, 45, 140-149. doi.org/10.1080/00224490801987424
Cirako?lu, O.C. (2006). Perception of homosexuality among Turkish university students: the roles of labels, gender, and prior contact. Journal of Social Psychology, 146, 293-305. doi:10.3200/SOCP.146.3.293-305
Collier, K.L., Bos, H.M.W. & Sandfort, T.G.M. (2012). Intergroup contact, attitudes toward homosexuality, and the role of acceptance of gender non-conformity in young adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 899-907. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.12.010
Cooley, J J. & Burkholder, G.J. (2011). Using Video and Contact to Change Attitudes Toward Gay Men and Lesbians. Journal of Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences, 5, 83-90. doi:
10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.08
Curran, P.J., West, S.G. & Finch, J. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16-29. doi:10.1037=1082-989X.1.1.16
D?Augelli, A.R. (1989). Lesbians? and gay men?s experiences of discrimination and harassment in a university community. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 317-321. doi: 10.1007/BF00931039
D'Augelli, A.R. & Rose, M.L. (1990). Homophobia in a university community: Attitudes and experiences of heterosexual freshman. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 484491.
Ellis, S.J., Kitzinger, C. & Wilkinson, S. (2002). Attitudes towards lesbians and gay men and support for human rights among psychology students. Journal of Homosexuality, 44, 121-138. doi: 10.1300/J082v44n01_07.
Frías-Navarro, D. (2009). Beliefs About Children?s Adjustment in Same- Sex Families Scale
(BCASSFS). University of Valencia, Spain. Retrieved from http://www.uv.es/friasnav/Scale_Items14.pdf
Frías-Navarro, D. (2011). Técnica estadística y diseño de investigación [Technical statistics and research design]. Valencia (Spain): Palmero Ediciones
Frías-Navarro, D. & Monterde-i-Bort, H. (2012) A Scale on Beliefs about Children's Adjustment in Same-Sex Families: Reliability and Validity. Journal of Homosexuality, 59, 12731288. doi: 10.1080/00918369.2012.720505.
Frías-Navarro, D., Monterde-i-Bort, H., Pascual-Soler, M. & Badenes-Ribera, L. (2013). Etiology of homosexuality and attitudes toward same-sex parenting: Results from a randomized study. Journal of Sex Research. In press. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2013.802757.
Gentry, C.S. (1987). Social distance regarding male and female homosexuals. Journal of Social Psychology, 127, 199-208. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1987.9713680.
Heinze, J.E. & Horn, S.S. (2009). Intergroup contact and beliefs about homosexuality in Adolescence. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 38, 937-951. doi:10.1007/s10964-0099408-x
Herek, G.M. (1984). Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: A factor-analytic study. Journal of Homosexuality, 10, 39-51. http://dx.doi:.org/10.1300/J082v10n01_03
Herek, G.M. (1988). Heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: Correlates and gender differences. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 451-477. http://dx.doi:.org/10.1080/00224498809551476
Herek, G.M. (1994). Assessing heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: A review of empirical research with the ATLG scale. En B. Greene y G.M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 206-228). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Herek, G.M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 9, 19-22. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00051
Herek, G.M. (2002). Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66, 40-66. doi: 10.1086/338409
Herek, G.M. & Capitanio, J. (1996). Some of my best friends: intergroup contact, concealable
stigma, and heterosexuals? attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 412-424. doi:10.1177/0146167296224007
Hinrichs, D. & Rosenberg, P. (2002). Attitudes toward gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons among heterosexual liberal art college students. Journal of Homosexuality, 43, 61-84. doi: 10.1300/J082v43n01_04.
Judd, C.M. & Kenny, D.A. (1981). Estimating the effects for social intervention. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Kerns, J.G. & Fine, M.A. (1994). The relation between gender and negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians: Do gender role attitudes mediate this relation? Sex Roles, 31, 297-307. doi: 10.1007/BF01544590
King, B. & Black, K. (1999). Extent of relational stigmatization of lesbian and their children by heterosexual collage students. Journal of Homosexuality, 37, 65-81. doi: 10.1300/J082v37n02_04
Kite, M.E. (1984). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuals: A meta-analysis review. Journal of Homosexuality, 10(1-2), 69-81.
Kite, M.E. (1992). Individual differences in males? reactions to gay males and lesbians. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1222-1239. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb02362.x
Kite, M.E. (1994). When perceptions meet reality: Individual differences in reactions to lesbians and gay men. In B. Greene, Beverly and G.M. Herek (Eds), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications. Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues, Vol. 1 (pp. 25-53). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications.
Kite, M.E. & Whitley Jr., B.E. (1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336-353. doi:10.1177/0146167296224002.
LaMar, L., & Kite, M. (1998). Sex differences in attitudes toward gay men and lesbians: A multidimensional perspective. Journal of Sex Research, 35, 189-196. doi: 10.1080/00224499809551932.
Lehavot, K. & Lambert, A.J. (2007). Toward a greater understanding of antigay prejudice: On the role of sexual orientation and gender role violation. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 3, 279-292. doi: 10.1080/01973530701503390
Lim, V.K. (2002). Gender differences and attitudes towards homosexuality. Journal of Homosexuality, 43, 85-97. doi: 10.1300/J082v43n01_05.
Lingiardi, V., Falanga, S. & D?Augelli, A. (2005). The evaluation of homophobia in an Italian sample. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 81-93. doi: 10.1007/s10508-005-1002-z.
MacKinnon, D.P. & Dwyer, J.H. (1993). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Review, 17, 144-158. doi: 10.1177/0193841X9301700202.
Mazziotta, A., Mummendey, A. & Wright, S. (2011). Vicarious intergroup contact effects: Applying social-cognitive theory to intergroup contact research. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14, 255-274. doi: 10.1177/1368430210390533.
Monterde-i-Bort Pascual-Llobell, J. & Frias-Navarro, D. (2006). Interpretation mistakes in statistical methods: Their importance and some recommendations. Psicothema, 18, 848856.
Moskowitz, D.A., Rieger, G. & Roloff, M.E. (2010). Heterosexual attitudes toward same-sex marriage. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 325-336. doi: 10.1080/00918360903489176.
Navarro, M.D.F., Llobell, J.P. & Perez, J.F.G. (2000). Effect size and statistical significance. Psicothema, 12, 236-240.
Nierman, A.J., Thompson, S.C., Bryan, A. & Mahaffey, A.L. (2007). Gender role beliefs and attitudes towards lesbians and gay men in Chile and the U.S. Sex Roles, 57, 61-67. doi:
10.1007/s11199-007-9197-1.
Pew Research Center (2013) The Global Divide on Homosexuality. Greater Acceptance in More
Secular and Affluent Countries. Retrieved from
http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/06/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Homosexuality-ReportFINAL-JUNE-4-2013.pdf
Raja, S. & Stokes, J.P. (1998). Assessing attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: The Modern Homophobia Scale. Journal of Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Identity, 3, 113-134. doi:10.1023/A:1023244427281.
Rhoads, R.A. (1995). Learning from the coming-out experiences of college males. Journal of College Student Development, 36, 67-74.
Sanford, M. & Engstrom, C.M. (1995). Attitudes toward gay and lesbian students: An investigation of resident advisors. Journal of College and University Student Housing, 25, 26-30.
Schellenberg, E.G., Hirt, J. & Sears, A. (1999). Attitudes toward homosexuals among students at a Canadian university. Sex Roles, 40, 139-152. doi: 10.1023/A:1018838602905
Simoni, J.M. (1996). Pathways to prejudice: Predicting students? heterosexist attitudes with demographics, self-esteem, and contact with lesbians and gay men. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 68-78.
Smith, S.J., Axelton, A.M. & Saucier, D.A. (2009). The effects of contact on sexual prejudice: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 61, 178-191. doi:10.1007/s11199–009-9627–3
Sobel, M.E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological Methodology (pp. 290-312). Washington DC: American Sociological Association.
Whitley, B.E. (1988). Sex differences in heterosexuals? attitudes toward homosexuals: It depends upon what you ask. Journal of Sex Research, 24, 287-291. doi: 10.1080/00224498809551426
Yarber, W.L. & Lee, B. (1983). Heterosexuals? attitudes toward lesbians and male homosexuality: Their affective orientation toward sexuality and sex guilt. Journal of College Health, 31, 203-208. doi: 10.1080/07448481.1983.9939558.