"Objetividad científica” y sesgos en la toma de decisiones jurídicas: los casos de genética forense y de algoritmos
Contenido principal del artículo
Resumen
La “objetividad” y “neutralidad” de la ciencia pueden conducir a la discriminación y a la violación de derechos fundamentales de las personas. Para evitarlo, es necesario respetar algunos principios en el uso de la ciencia como base de decisiones de relevancia jurídica, como emerge en el caso de la genética forense y de la inteligencia artificial.
Citas
AGUILÓ, A. (2009). “La universidad y la globalización alternativa: justicia cognitiva, diversidad epistémica y democracia de saberes, en Nómadas”. Revista Crítica de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas, 22 (2).
ANDERSEN, H. & HEPBURN, B. (2015). “Scientific Method”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Disponible en: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/scientific-method/
ANDERSON, C., LEPPER, M., & ROSS, L. (1980). “Perseverance of social theories: The role of explanation in the persistence of discredited information”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,39(6), pp: 1037-1049. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077720.
ANDORNO, R. (2005), “The Oviedo Convention: A European Legal Framework at the Intersection of Human Rights and Health Law”, in JIBL, vol 02, I, 2005, pp. 133-143.
ARNOTT, D. (2006). “Cognitive biases and decision support systems development: A design science approach”. Information Systems Journal,16(1), pp: 55-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2575.2006.00208.x.
ASK, K., REBELIUS, A., & GRANHAG, P. A. (2008). “The ‘elasticity’ of criminal evidence: A moderator of investigator bias. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(9), pp:1245-1259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1432.
BAR, M. (2004). “Visual objects in context”. Nat Rev Neurosci 5, pp: 617-629. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1476.
BEARD, K. (2015). The Role of Social Context in the Production of Scientific Knowledge. Disponible en:
https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj/1852.
BIDDLE, J. & KUKLA, R. (2017). “The geography of epistemic risk” en K. C. Elliott & T. Richards (Eds.), Exploring inductive risk: Case studies of values in science (pp: 215-237). (New York, Oxford University Press).
BLACHOWICZ, J. (2009). “How Science Textbooks Treat Scientific Method: A Philosopher’s Perspective”. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 60 (2), pp: 303-304. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axp011.
BUTLER, J. (2005). “Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology and Genetics of STR Markers”. (Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam, Boston y Otros)
CARTABIA, M. Y VILLANTE, L., (2018) Giustizia e Mit (Bologna, il Mulino).
CASSESE, S., (2018) Il diritto nello specchio di Sofocle. Corriere della sera.19-5-2018, p. 40
CAVALLARO, M. Y SMORTO, G. (2019) Decisione pubblica e responsabilità dell’amministrazione nella società dell’algoritmo. en https://n9.cl/o460b (consultado el 31de julio de 2021).
CHARLTON, D., FRASER-MACKENZIE, P. & DROR, I. (2010). Emotional experiences and motivating factors associated with fingerprint analysis”. Journal of forensic sciences, 55(2), pp: 385-393. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2009.01295.x
CIPPITANI, R. (2018), “The shape of water: freedom and rules in the organisation of research activities”, in Luigi Cimmino, Livio Fanò, Caterina Petrillo, Ambrogio Santambrogio, Elena Stanghellini, Fabio Veronesi (eds.), Fare scienza oggi, Morlacchi, Perugia, pp: 329-342.
CRAMER, R., BRODSKY, S., & DECOSTER, J. (2009). “Expert witness confidence and juror personality: their impact on credibility and persuasion in the courtroom”. The journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 37(1), pp: 63 74.
CUSHMAN, F. (2020). “Rationalization is rational”. Behavioural and Brain Sciences 43, e28, pp:1-59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X19001730.
DAS, T. & TENG, B. (1999), “Cognitive Biases and Strategic Decision Processes: An Integrative Perspective”. Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 36, Issue 6, pp: 757-778. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00157.
DE MARCH, I. & TARONI, F. (2020). “Bayesian networks and dissonant items of evidence: A case study”. Forensic Science International: Genetics, 44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2019.102172.
DEVILLE, C. y Otros (2020). “I Can’t Breathe The Continued Disproportionate Exclusion of Black Physicians in the United States Radiation Oncology Workforce”. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, S0360-3016(20)31413-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2020.07.015.
DONATI, F. (2020) “Intelligenza Artificiale e Giustizia”, en Rivista AIC, 1/2020, pp. 415-436.
DROR I. (2018). “Biases in forensic experts”. Science (New York, N.Y.), 360(6386): 243. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat8443.
DROR, I. (2011). “The Paradox of Human Expertise: Why Experts Get It Wrong”. In The Paradoxila Brain, 117 (Kapur, N. ed.).
DROR, I. (2013). “The ambition to be scientific: Human expert performance and objectivity”. Science and Justice, 53, pp:81- 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2013.03.002.
DROR, I. (2020). “Cognitive and Human Factors in Expert Decision Making: Six Fallacies and the Eight Sources of Bias.” Anal. Chem. 2020, 92, pp: 7998-8004. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.0c00704.
DROR, I., & COLE, S. (2010). “The vision in “blind” justice: expert perception, judgment, and visual cognition in forensic pattern recognition”. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 17(2), pp: 161-167. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.17.2.161.
DROR, I. & FRASER-MACKENZIE, P. (2008). “Cognitive Biases in Human Perception, Judgment and Decision Making: Bridging Theory and the Real World”. Ch. 5 in Criminal Investigative Failures (Rossmo, K. ed.), Taylor & Francis.
DROR, I. & ROSENTHAL, R. (2008). “Meta-analytically quantifying the reliability and disability of forensic experts”. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 53(4), pp: 900-903. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2008.00762.x.
DROR, I. & CHARLTON, D. (2006). “Why experts make errors”. Journal of Forensic Identification, 56(4), pp. 600-616.
DROR, I. & HAMPIKIAN, G. (2011). “Subjectivity and bias in forensic DNA mixture interpretation”. Science and Justice, 51, pp: 204-208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2011.08.004.
DROR, I., BUSEMEYER, J. & BASOLA, B. (1999). Decision making under time pressure: an independent test of sequential sampling models. Memory & Cognition, 27(4): 713–725. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03211564.
DROR, I., MCCORMACK, J. & EPSTEIN, J. (2015). Cognitive Bias and Its Impact on Expert Witnesses and the Court”. The Judges Journal, Vol. 54, Issue 4, pp:8-14.
ED. (2009). “Defining the scientific method”. Nat. Methods, 6, 237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth0409-237
ELDRIDGE, H. (2019). Juror comprehension of forensic expert testimony: A literature review and gap analysis. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 1: 24-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2019.03.001.
EDWARDS, H. (2009). “Solving the problems that plague the forensic science community”. Jurimetrics, 50(1), pp: 5-19.
ELDRIDGE, H. (2019). “Juror comprehension of forensic expert testimony: A literature review and gap analysis”. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 1, pp: 24-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2019.03.001.
ESQUEDA, C. (1997). “European American students’ perceptions of crimes committed by five racial groups”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(16), pp:1406-1420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb01605.x.
EVANS, J. & STANOVICH, K. (2013). “Dual-Process Theories of Higher Cognition: Advancing the Debate”. Perspectives on psychological science: a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 8(3), pp: 223-241. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460685.
FELICIONI, P. (2012) “La prova del dna tra esaltazione mediatica e realtà applicativa” en Archivio Penale, 2012, pp.1-29
FRAEDRICH, D. (2001). “Revival of Objectivity in Scientific Method”. The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies, 3(1), pp: 29-46. Disponible en: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41560169.
FRODI, A., MACAULAY, J., & THOME, P. (1977). “Are women always less aggressive than men? A review of the experimental literature”. Psychological Bulletin, 84(4), pp: 634-660. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.84.4.634.
GAWANDE, A. (1999). The cancer-cluster myth. The New Yorker, pp: 34–37.
GEORGIOU, N., MORGAN, R. & FRENCH, J. (2020). “Conceptualising, evaluating and communicating uncertainty in forensic science: Identifying commonly used tools through an interdisciplinary configurative review”. Science & Justice, 60(4), pp: 313-336.
GIALUZ, M., LUPÁRIA, L., & SCARPA, F. (2017). The Italian Code of Criminal Procedure: Critical Essays and English Translation. CEDAM.
GILL, P., HICKS, T., BUTLER, J. M., et al. (2020). “DNA commission of the International Society for forensic genetics: Assessing the value of forensic biological evidence - Guidelines highlighting the importance of propositions. Part II: Evaluation of biological traces considering activity level propositions”. Forensic science international. Genetics, 44, 102186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2019.102186.
GENNARI, G. & PICCININI, A., (2012) “Dal caso Reed ad Amanda Knox; ovvero quando il DNA non è abastanza” en Diritto penale processuale, 3, 2012, p. 359 sigs.
HABER, L. & HABER, R. (2008). “Scientific validation of fingerprint evidence under Daubert”. Law, Probability and Risk, 7(2), pp: 87-109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/lpr/mgm020
HANS, V. y Otros (2011). Science in the jury box: Jurors’ comprehension of mitochondrial DNA evidence”. Law and Human Behavior, 35(1), pp: 60-71. DOI: https://doi:10.1007/s10979-010-9222-8
JONES, C. & KAPLAN, M. (2003). “The effects of racially stereotypical crimes on juror decision-making and information-processing strategies”. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 25(1), pp: 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2501_1.
KLIR, G. (1997). “Uncertainty theories, measures, and principles: an overview of personal views and contributions”. Math. Res. 99. pp: 27-43.
KLOOSTERMAN, A., SJERPS, M. & QUAK, A. (2014). “Error rates in forensic DNA analysis: Definition, numbers, impact and communication”. Forensic Science International: Genetics, 12, pp: 77-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2014.04.014
KOEHLER, J. (2008). “Fingerprint error rates and proficiency tests: What they are and why they matter”. 59 Hastings L.J. 1077. Disponible en: https://repository.uchastings.edu/hastings_law_journal/vol59/iss5/5
KOEHLER, J. y Otros (2016). Science, Technology, or the Expert Witness: What Influences Jurors’ Judgements About Forensic Science Testimony?” Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 22(4): pp: 401-4013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000103
KOSKINEN, I. (2020). “Objectivity in contexts: withholding epistemic judgement as a strategy for mitigating collective bias”. Synthese. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-020-02645-9
KUHN, T. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolution (Chicago, University of Chicago Press).
KUKUCKA, J. y Otros (2017). “Cognitive Bias and Blindness: A Global Survey in Forensic Science Examiners”. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, Vol. 6, Issue 4: 452-459. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.09.001.
LEIBER, M. y Otros (2018). “Sentencing Recommendations by Probation Officers and Judges: An Examination of Adult Offenders Across Gender”. Women & Criminal Justice, 28(2), pp: 100-124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2017.1297279.
LYNCH, M. (2003). “God’s signature: DNA profiling, the new gold standard in forensic science.” Endeavour, 27(2), pp:93-97. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/s0160-9327(03)00068-1.
MANNAN, M. (2018). “Science and Subjectivity: Understanding Objectivity of Scientific Knowledge”. Philosophy and Progress, 59(1-2), pp: 43-72. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3329/pp.v59i1-2.36680.
MARKSTEINER, T. y otros. (2011). Asymmetrical scepticism towards criminal evidence: The role of goal‐ and belief consistency”. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25 (4), pp: 541–547. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1719.
MCQUISTON-SURRETT, D. & SAKS, M. J. (2008). “ Communicating Opinion Evidence in the Forensic Identification Sciences: Accuracy and Impact”. Hastings L. J., 59(5), pp: 1159-1189. https://repository.uchastings.edu/hastings_law_journal/vol59/iss5/7.
MEEREN, H., VAN HEIJNSBERGEN, C. & DE GELDER, B. (2005). „Rapid perceptual integration of facial expression and emotional body language”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(45), pp: 16518-16523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0507650102.
MORIN, E. (1990), Science avec conscience (Seuil, Paris)
MORGAN, R. (2017). “Conceptualising forensic science and forensic reconstruction. Part I: A conceptual model”. Science & Justice, 57(6), pp: 455-459. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2017.06.002.
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (2009). Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. (Washington DC, The National Academies Press). Disponible en: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12589.html
NICKERSON, R. (1998). “Confirmation Bias: a ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises”. Rev. Gen. Psychol., 2, pp:175-220.
MUCIACCA, N. (2020) Algoritmi e procedimento decisionale: alcuni recenti arresti della giustizia amministrativa. En https://n9.cl/zynwr (Consultado el 31 de julio 2021)
O’BRIEN, É., NIC DAEID, N., & BLACK, S. (2015). “Science in the court: pitfalls, challenges and solutions”. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 370 (1674), 20150062. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0062
OLABOREDE, A. O. & MEINTJES-VAN DER WALT, L. (2020). “The Dangers of Convictions Based on a Single Piece of Forensic Evidence”. PER/PELJ, 23, pp: 1-38.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2020/v23i0a6169.
OSWALD, M. y Otros (2018), Algorithmic Risk Assessment Policing Models: Lessons from the Durham HART Model and ‘Experimental’ Proportionality, in Information & Communications Technology Law, n. 27/2018, p. 223
POPPER, K. (1959). The logic of Scientific Discovery. (Hutchinson & CO, London).
PRIGOGINE, I., & STENGERS, I. (1984). Order out of chaos: Man’s new dialogue with nature. (Bantam New Age Books, New York).
RIBEIRO, G., TANGEN, J. & MCKIMMIE, B. (2019). “Beliefs about error rates and human judgment in forensic science”. Forensic Science International, 297, pp: 138-147.
RICCI, U. (2011) “Limiti e aspettative della genetica forense, en C. Conti (a cura di)”, Scienza e processo penale, (Giuffrè, Milano).
RISINGER, D. y Otros (2002). “The Daubert/Kumho implications of observer effects in forensic science: Hidden problems of expectation and suggestion”. California Law Review 90(1), pp. 1-56. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.301408.
ROSS, L., LEPPER, M. & HUBBARD, M. (1975). “Perseverance in Self-Perception and Social Perception: Biased Attributional Processes in the Debriefing Paradigm”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(5), pp: 880-892.
ROSSMO, K. K. & POLLOCK, J. M. (2019). “Confirmation Bias and Other Systemic Causes of Wrongful Convictions: A Sentinel Events Perspective”. Northeastern University Law Review, 11, pp: 790-835.En: https://n9.cl/sj2zu
SÁNCHEZ-RUBIO, A. (2018) “Los peligros de la probabilidad y la estadística como herramientas para la valoración jurídico-probatoria”, en Revista Brasileira de Direito Processual Penal, núm. 1.
SÁNCHEZ-RUBIO, A. (2019) La prueba científica en el proceso penal. (Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia).
SAKS, M. & KOEHLER, J. (2005). “The Coming Paradigm Shift in Forensic Identification Science”. Science, 309 (5736), pp: 892-895. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111565.
SCHWARTZ, O., HSU, A. & DAYAN, P. (2007). „Space and time in visual context”. Nat Rev Neurosci.; 8(7), pp: 522-535. DOI: http://doi:10.1038/nrn2155.
SEARSTON, R. & TANGEN, J. (2017). “Expertise with unfamiliar objects is flexible to changes in the task but not changes in class”, PloS One 12, pp: 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178403.
SIEGELMAN, N., & FROST, R. (2015). “Statistical learning as an individual ability: Theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence”. Journal of Memory and Language, 81, pp: 105-120. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2015.02.001.
SIMONCINI, A. (2019) “L’algoritmo incostituzionale: intelligenza artificiale e il futuro delle libertà”, in BioLaw Journal, 1/2019.SKORINKO, J. & SPELLMAN, B. (2013). Stereotypic Crimes: How Group-Crime Associations Affect Memory and (Sometimes) Verdicts and Sentencing”. Victims & Offenders, 8(3), pp: 278-307. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2012.755140.
SMALARZ, L. y Otros (2016). “The perfect match: Do criminal stereotypes bias forensic evidence analysis?” Law and human behaviour, 40(4), pp: 420-429. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000190.
REISS, J & SPRENGER, J. (2014). „Scientific Objectivity”. In E. Zalta (Ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Disponible en: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-objectivity/.
SU, C. & SRIHARI, S. (2011). “Latent Fingerprint Rarity Analysis in Madrid Bombing Case”. In: Sako H., Franke K.Y., Saitoh S.(eds) Computational Forensics. IWCF 2010. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6540. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19376-7_15.
TAYLOR, D. & BALDING, D. (2020). “How can courts take into account the uncertainty in a likelihood ratio?” Forensic Science International: Genetics, 48, 102361. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2020.102361
THOMPSON, M. & TANGEN, J. (2014). “The nature of expertise in fingerprint matching: experts can do a lot with a little”. PloS One, 9, pp: 1-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114759.
THOMPSON, M., TANGEN, J. & MCCARTHY, D. (2013). “Expertise in fingerprint identification”. J. Forensic Sci., 58, pp: 1519-1530. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12203.
THOMPSON, W. (1995). “Subjective interpretation, laboratory error and the value of DNA evidence: three case studies”. Genetica 96, pp: 153-168.
THOMPSON, W. (2009). “Painting the target around the matching profile: the Texas sharpshooter fallacy in forensic DNA interpretation” Law, Probability and Risk, 8(3), pp: 257–276. DOI: https://doi:10.1093/lpr/mgp013.
THOMPSON, W. (2013). “Forensic DNA evidence: The myth of infallibility”. In J. Gruber & S. Krimsky (Eds.), Genetic explanations: Sense and nonsense, pp. 227-255. (Cambridge, Harvard University Press).
THOMPSON, W. y Otros (2018). “Perceived strength of forensic scientists reporting statements about source conclusions”. Law, Probability and Risk, 17, pp: 133-155. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/lpr/mgy012.
TOULMIN, T. (1972). Human Understanding (Oxford: Clarendon Press).
TVERSKY, A. & KAHNEMAN, D. (1974). “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases”. Science, New Series, Vol. 185, No. 4157, pp: 1124-1131.
ULERY, B. y Otros (2012). “Repeatability and reproducibility of decisions by latent fingerprint examiners”, PloS One, 7, pp: 1-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032800.
ULERY, B. y Otros (2016). “Interexaminer variation of minutia markup on latent fingerprints”. Forensic
science international, 264, pp: 89-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.03.014.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, OFFICE OF INSPECTOR GENERAL (2006). A Review of the FBI’s Handling of the Brandon Mayfield Case. Disponible en: https://oig.justice.gov/sites/default/files/legacy/special/s0601/final.pdf
VATTIMO, G. & ZUCCHETTI, M. (2016), Heidegger e la bomba atomica: ovvero la scienza deve pensare, speech at the Politecnico of Turin. Disponible en: https://n9.cl/xkak5
WEBER, M. (2017), “The Meaning of ‘Ethical Neutrality’ in Sociology and Economics” en Weber, M., Methodology of Social Sciences (Routledge, New York), pp. 1–48.