The role of parental socialization styles in school engagement and academic performance
The role of parental socialization styles in school engagement and academic performance
Main Article Content
Abstract
Many variables have been analyzed in relation to school adjustment. However, only a few studies have explored the relationship between this construct and parental socialization styles, particularly in Spain. This work aims to examine the role played by maternal and paternal socialization styles in school engagement and academic performance. Participants were 737 secondary school students from the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, aged between 11 and 18. All students completed the Affect Scale (EA-H) and the Rules and Demands Scale (ENE-H), as well as the School Engagement Measure (SEM), and performance was calculated on the basis of their average grades in mathematics and Spanish. The results indicate that, in the case of academic performance, a permissive style by both parents has the most positive effect on the grades obtained, while in the case of school engagement, it was both the permissive and democratic styles by both parents (with small variations between maternal and paternal styles in accordance with the dimension analyzed) that were most closely associated with a higher level of engagement. The educational implications of these results are discussed.
References
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between perceived parental acceptance and psychological adjustment of children and adult
offspring: A meta-analytic review of worldwide research. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 46(8), 1059-1080.
Alonso, J., & Román, J.M. (2005). Estilos educativos familiares y autoestima de los hijos de 4 y 5
años. Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada, 58(1), 101-114.
Alves, A.F., Assis, C.M., Martins, A., & da Silva, L. (2017). Cognitive Performance and academic
achievement: How do family and school converge? European Journal of Education and
Psychology, 10, 49-56.
Bastaits, K., Ponnet, K., & Mortelmans, D. (2012). Parenting of divorced fathers and the
association with children’s self-esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(12),
1643-1656.
Bersabé, R., Fuentes, M.J., & Motrico, E. (2011). Análisis psicométrico de dos escalas para
evaluar estilos educativos parentales. Psicothema, 13(4), 678-684.
Brand, A.E., & Klimes-Dugan, B. (2010). Emotion socialization in adolescence: The roles of
mothers and fathers. In A. Kennedy Root y S. Denham (Eds.) The role of gender in the
socialization of emotion: Key concepts and critical issues. New directions for child and
adolescent development (Vol. 128, pp. 85–100). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
Brunner, J.J., & Elacqua, G. (2003). Factores que inciden en una educación efectiva. 2003: La
Educación en Chile Hoy, 45-54.
Calafat, A., García, F., Juan, M., Becoña, E., & Fernández-Hermida, J.R. (2014). Which parenting
style is more protective against adolescent substance use? Evidence within the European
context. Drug and alcohol dependence, 138, 185-192.
Cenkseven-Önder, F. (2012). Parenting styles and life satisfaction of Turkish adolescents.
Educational Research and Reviews, 7, 577-584.
Cerezo, M.T., Casanova, P.F., de la Torre, M.J., & Carpio, M.V. (2011). Estilos educativos
paternos y estrategias de aprendizaje en alumnos de educación secundaria. European
Journal of Education and Psychology, 4, 51-61.
Chan, T.W., & Koo, A. (2011). Parenting style and youth outcomes in the UK. European
Sociological Review, 27(3), 385–399.
De la Torre, M.J., Casanova, P.F., García, M.C., Carpio, M.V., & Cerezo, M.T. (2011). Estilos
educativos paternos y estrés en estudiantes de educación secundaria obligatoria. Psicología
Conductual, 19, 577–590.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2010). Self?determination. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Elham, D., Siti, N.Y., Rumaya, B.J., & Mansor, A.T. (2012). Relationship between parenting style
and academic achievement among Iranian adolescents in Sirjan. Asian Social Science 8,
156-160.
Englund, M.M., Egeland, B., & Collins, W.A. (2008). Exceptions to high school dropout
predictions in a low?income sample: Do adults make a difference? Journal of Social
Issues, 64(1), 77-94.
Erden, M., & Uredi, I. (2008). The effect of perceived parenting styles on self-regulated learning
strategies and motivational beliefs. International Journal about Parents in Education, 2(1),
25-34.
Felizardo, S., Cantarinha, D., Alves, A.B., Ribeiro, E.J., & Amante, M.J. (2016). Students’
involvement in school and parental support: Contributions to the socio-educational
intervention. The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences, 278-287.
Fernández-Zabala, A., Goñi, E., Camino, I., & Zulaika, L.M. (2016). Family and school context in
school engagement. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9(2), 47-55.
Fredricks, J., Blumenfeld, P., Friedel, J., & Paris, A. (2005). School engagement. What do children
need to flourish?, 305-321.
Fuentes, M.C., García, F., Gracia, E., & Alarcón, A. (2015). Los estilos parentales de socialización
y el ajuste psicológico. Un estudio con adolescentes españoles. Revista de Psicodidáctica,
20(1), 117-138.
Fuentes, M.J., Motrico, E., & Bersabé, R.M. (1999). Escala de Afecto (EA) y Escala de Normas y
Exigencias (ENE): Versión hijos y versión padres. Málaga: Universidad de Málaga.
García, F., & Gracia, E. (2010). ¿Qué estilo de socialización parental es el idóneo en España? Un
estudio con niños adolescentes de 10 a 14 años. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 33(3), 365-384.
García, M.E., Gutiérrez, A.B., Tuero, E., Cerezo, R., & Nuñez, J.C. (2016). El contexto sí importa:
identificación de relaciones entre el abandono de titulación y variables contextuales.
European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 79-88.
García, F.J., & Rosel, J. (1999). Características familiares y estimación de los resultados
educativos de los alumnos por el profesor. Psicothema, 11(3), 587-600.
García, M.C., Cerezo, M.T., de la Torre, M.J., Carpio, M.V., & Casanova, P.F. (2011). Prácticas
educativas paternas y problemas internalizantes y externalizantes en adolescentes
españoles. Psicothema, 23(4), 654-659.
Garg, R., Levin, E., Urajnik, D., & Kauppi, C. (2005). Parenting style and academic achievement
for East Indian and Canadian adolescents. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 36(4),
653-661.
Gaylord, N.K., Kitzmann, K.M., & Lockwood, R.L. (2003). Child characteristics as moderators of
the association between family stress and children's internalizing, externalizing, and peer
rejection. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 12(2), 201-213.
Gray, M.R., & Steinberg, L. (1999). Unpacking authoritative parenting: Reassessing a
multidimensional construct. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(3), 574-587.
Gruman, D.H., Harachi, T.W., Abbott, R.D., Catalano, R.F., & Fleming, C.B. (2008). Longitudinal
effects of student mobility on three dimensions of elementary school engagement. Child
development, 79(6), 1833-1852.
Hughes, J.N., & Chen, Q. (2011). Reciprocal effects of student–teacher and student–peer
relatedness: Effects on academic self efficacy. Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology, 32(5), 278-287.
Huver, R.M.E., Otten, R., De Vries, H., & Engels, R.M.E. (2010). Personality and parenting style
in parents of adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 395-402.
Im-Bolter, N., Yaghoub Zadeh, Z., & Ling, D. (2013). Early parenting beliefs and academic
achievement: The mediating role of language. Early Child Development and Care,
183(12), 1811-1826.
Ishak, Z., Fin-Low, S., & Li-Lau, P. (2012). Parenting style as a moderator for students’ academic
achievement. Journal of Science Education & Technology, 21, 487-493.
King, R.B., & Ganotice, F.A. (2014). What’s happening to our boys? a personal investment
analysis of gender differences in student motivation. The Asia-Pacific Education
Researcher, 23(1), 151-157.
Klein, H.A., & Ballantine, J. (2001). For parents particularly: Raising competent kids: The
authoritative parenting style. Childhood Education, 78(1), 46-47.
Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child
interaction. En P.H. Mussen y E.M. Hetherington (Eds), Handbook of child psychology:
Socialization, personality, and social development (pp.1–100). New York: Wiley.
Masud, H., Thurasamy, R., & Ahmad, M.S. (2015). Parenting styles and academic achievement of
young adolescents: A systematic literature review. Quality & Quantity, 49(6), 2411-2433.
Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., & Netter, S. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in
adolescents: associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of
Child and Family Studies, 16, 39-47.
Murray, C. (2009). Parent and teacher relationships as predictors of school engagement and
functioning among low-income urban youth. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(3),
376-404.
Ou, S.R. (2005). Pathways of long-term effects of an early intervention program on educational
attainment: Findings from the Chicago longitudinal study. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 26(5), 578-611.
Pelegrina, S., Linares, M.C.G., & Casanova, P.F. (2002). Los estilos educativos de los padres y la
competencia académica de los adolescentes. Infancia y aprendizaje, 25(2), 147-168.
Perdue, N.H., Manzeske, D.P., & Estell, D.B. (2009). Early predictors of school engagement:
Exploring the role of peer relationships. Psychology in the Schools, 46(10), 1084-1097.
Pong, S.L., Hao, L., & Gardner, E. (2005). The roles of parenting styles and social capital in the
school performance of immigrant Asian and Hispanic adolescents. Social Science
Quarterly, 86(4), 928-950.
Prevatt, F.F. (2003). The contribution of parenting practices in a risk and resiliency model of
children's adjustment. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(4), 469-480.
Ramos-Díaz, E., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., & Revuelta, L. (2016). Validation of the Spanish
Version of the School Engagement Measure (SEM). The Spanish Journal of Psychology,
19, e86, 1-9.
Ramos-Díaz, E., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Revuelta, L., & Axpe, I. (2016). El rol mediador de la
implicación escolar sobre el apoyo del profesorado y la satisfacción con la vida. European
Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 6(3), 177-191.
Ramos-Díaz, E., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Fernández-Zabala, A., Revuelta, L., & Zuazagoitia, A.
(2016). Apoyo social percibido, autoconcepto e implicación escolar de estudiantes
adolescentes. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 21(2), 339-356.
Rinaldi, C.M., & Howe, N. (2012). Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles and associations with
toddlers’ externalizing, internalizing, and adaptive behaviors. Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 27(2), 266–273.
Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Droguett, L., & Revuelta, L. (2012). School and personal adjustment in
adolescence: The role of academic self-concept and perceived social support. Revista de
Psicodidáctica, 17(2), 397-414.
Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Ramos-Díaz, E., Fernández-Zabala, A., Goñi, E., Esnaola, I., & Goñi,
A. (2016). Contextual and psychological variables in a descriptive model of subjective
well-being and school engagement. International Journal of Clinical and Health
Psychology, 16(2), 166-174.
Rohner, R.P., & Khaleque, A. (2010). Testing central postulates of parental acceptance?rejection
theory (PARTheory): A meta?analysis of cross?cultural studies. Journal of Family Theory
& Review, 2(1), 73-87
Ruiz de Miguel, C. (2001). Factores familiares vinculados al bajo rendimiento. Revista
complutense de educación, 12(1), 81-92.
Simons-Morton, B., & Chen, R. (2009). Peer and parent influences on school engagement among
early adolescents. Youth & Society, 41(1), 3-25.
Sinclair, M.F., Christenson, S.L., Lehr, C.A., & Anderson, A.R. (2003). Facilitating Student
Engagement: Lessons Learned from Check and Connect Longitudinal Studies. California
School Psychologist, 8, 29-41.
Tiller, A.E., Garrison, M.E.B., Block, E.B., Cramer, K., & Tiller, V. (2003) The influence of
parenting styles on children’s cognitive development. Undergrad Res J Hum Sci, 2, 1–21.
Torrente, G., & Vazsonyi, A.T. (2008). Brief Report: The salience of the family in antisocial and
delinquent behaviors among Spanish adolescents. The Journal of Genetic Psychology,
169(2), 187-198.
Veiga, F.H., Bahia, S., Nogueira, J., Melo, M., Caldeira, S., Festas, I.,… Carvalho, C. (2012).
Portuguese adaptation of Students Engagement in School International Scale (SESIS).
Proceedings. In International Conference of Education, Research and innovation
(pp. 3356-3362). International Conference of Education, Research and Innovations.
Wang, M.T., & Eccles, J.S. (2012). Social support matters: Longitudinal effects of social support
on three dimensions of school engagement from middle to high school. Child
Development, 83(3), 877-895.
between perceived parental acceptance and psychological adjustment of children and adult
offspring: A meta-analytic review of worldwide research. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 46(8), 1059-1080.
Alonso, J., & Román, J.M. (2005). Estilos educativos familiares y autoestima de los hijos de 4 y 5
años. Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada, 58(1), 101-114.
Alves, A.F., Assis, C.M., Martins, A., & da Silva, L. (2017). Cognitive Performance and academic
achievement: How do family and school converge? European Journal of Education and
Psychology, 10, 49-56.
Bastaits, K., Ponnet, K., & Mortelmans, D. (2012). Parenting of divorced fathers and the
association with children’s self-esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(12),
1643-1656.
Bersabé, R., Fuentes, M.J., & Motrico, E. (2011). Análisis psicométrico de dos escalas para
evaluar estilos educativos parentales. Psicothema, 13(4), 678-684.
Brand, A.E., & Klimes-Dugan, B. (2010). Emotion socialization in adolescence: The roles of
mothers and fathers. In A. Kennedy Root y S. Denham (Eds.) The role of gender in the
socialization of emotion: Key concepts and critical issues. New directions for child and
adolescent development (Vol. 128, pp. 85–100). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
Brunner, J.J., & Elacqua, G. (2003). Factores que inciden en una educación efectiva. 2003: La
Educación en Chile Hoy, 45-54.
Calafat, A., García, F., Juan, M., Becoña, E., & Fernández-Hermida, J.R. (2014). Which parenting
style is more protective against adolescent substance use? Evidence within the European
context. Drug and alcohol dependence, 138, 185-192.
Cenkseven-Önder, F. (2012). Parenting styles and life satisfaction of Turkish adolescents.
Educational Research and Reviews, 7, 577-584.
Cerezo, M.T., Casanova, P.F., de la Torre, M.J., & Carpio, M.V. (2011). Estilos educativos
paternos y estrategias de aprendizaje en alumnos de educación secundaria. European
Journal of Education and Psychology, 4, 51-61.
Chan, T.W., & Koo, A. (2011). Parenting style and youth outcomes in the UK. European
Sociological Review, 27(3), 385–399.
De la Torre, M.J., Casanova, P.F., García, M.C., Carpio, M.V., & Cerezo, M.T. (2011). Estilos
educativos paternos y estrés en estudiantes de educación secundaria obligatoria. Psicología
Conductual, 19, 577–590.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2010). Self?determination. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Elham, D., Siti, N.Y., Rumaya, B.J., & Mansor, A.T. (2012). Relationship between parenting style
and academic achievement among Iranian adolescents in Sirjan. Asian Social Science 8,
156-160.
Englund, M.M., Egeland, B., & Collins, W.A. (2008). Exceptions to high school dropout
predictions in a low?income sample: Do adults make a difference? Journal of Social
Issues, 64(1), 77-94.
Erden, M., & Uredi, I. (2008). The effect of perceived parenting styles on self-regulated learning
strategies and motivational beliefs. International Journal about Parents in Education, 2(1),
25-34.
Felizardo, S., Cantarinha, D., Alves, A.B., Ribeiro, E.J., & Amante, M.J. (2016). Students’
involvement in school and parental support: Contributions to the socio-educational
intervention. The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences, 278-287.
Fernández-Zabala, A., Goñi, E., Camino, I., & Zulaika, L.M. (2016). Family and school context in
school engagement. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9(2), 47-55.
Fredricks, J., Blumenfeld, P., Friedel, J., & Paris, A. (2005). School engagement. What do children
need to flourish?, 305-321.
Fuentes, M.C., García, F., Gracia, E., & Alarcón, A. (2015). Los estilos parentales de socialización
y el ajuste psicológico. Un estudio con adolescentes españoles. Revista de Psicodidáctica,
20(1), 117-138.
Fuentes, M.J., Motrico, E., & Bersabé, R.M. (1999). Escala de Afecto (EA) y Escala de Normas y
Exigencias (ENE): Versión hijos y versión padres. Málaga: Universidad de Málaga.
García, F., & Gracia, E. (2010). ¿Qué estilo de socialización parental es el idóneo en España? Un
estudio con niños adolescentes de 10 a 14 años. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 33(3), 365-384.
García, M.E., Gutiérrez, A.B., Tuero, E., Cerezo, R., & Nuñez, J.C. (2016). El contexto sí importa:
identificación de relaciones entre el abandono de titulación y variables contextuales.
European Journal of Education and Psychology, 9, 79-88.
García, F.J., & Rosel, J. (1999). Características familiares y estimación de los resultados
educativos de los alumnos por el profesor. Psicothema, 11(3), 587-600.
García, M.C., Cerezo, M.T., de la Torre, M.J., Carpio, M.V., & Casanova, P.F. (2011). Prácticas
educativas paternas y problemas internalizantes y externalizantes en adolescentes
españoles. Psicothema, 23(4), 654-659.
Garg, R., Levin, E., Urajnik, D., & Kauppi, C. (2005). Parenting style and academic achievement
for East Indian and Canadian adolescents. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 36(4),
653-661.
Gaylord, N.K., Kitzmann, K.M., & Lockwood, R.L. (2003). Child characteristics as moderators of
the association between family stress and children's internalizing, externalizing, and peer
rejection. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 12(2), 201-213.
Gray, M.R., & Steinberg, L. (1999). Unpacking authoritative parenting: Reassessing a
multidimensional construct. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(3), 574-587.
Gruman, D.H., Harachi, T.W., Abbott, R.D., Catalano, R.F., & Fleming, C.B. (2008). Longitudinal
effects of student mobility on three dimensions of elementary school engagement. Child
development, 79(6), 1833-1852.
Hughes, J.N., & Chen, Q. (2011). Reciprocal effects of student–teacher and student–peer
relatedness: Effects on academic self efficacy. Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology, 32(5), 278-287.
Huver, R.M.E., Otten, R., De Vries, H., & Engels, R.M.E. (2010). Personality and parenting style
in parents of adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 395-402.
Im-Bolter, N., Yaghoub Zadeh, Z., & Ling, D. (2013). Early parenting beliefs and academic
achievement: The mediating role of language. Early Child Development and Care,
183(12), 1811-1826.
Ishak, Z., Fin-Low, S., & Li-Lau, P. (2012). Parenting style as a moderator for students’ academic
achievement. Journal of Science Education & Technology, 21, 487-493.
King, R.B., & Ganotice, F.A. (2014). What’s happening to our boys? a personal investment
analysis of gender differences in student motivation. The Asia-Pacific Education
Researcher, 23(1), 151-157.
Klein, H.A., & Ballantine, J. (2001). For parents particularly: Raising competent kids: The
authoritative parenting style. Childhood Education, 78(1), 46-47.
Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child
interaction. En P.H. Mussen y E.M. Hetherington (Eds), Handbook of child psychology:
Socialization, personality, and social development (pp.1–100). New York: Wiley.
Masud, H., Thurasamy, R., & Ahmad, M.S. (2015). Parenting styles and academic achievement of
young adolescents: A systematic literature review. Quality & Quantity, 49(6), 2411-2433.
Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., & Netter, S. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in
adolescents: associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of
Child and Family Studies, 16, 39-47.
Murray, C. (2009). Parent and teacher relationships as predictors of school engagement and
functioning among low-income urban youth. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(3),
376-404.
Ou, S.R. (2005). Pathways of long-term effects of an early intervention program on educational
attainment: Findings from the Chicago longitudinal study. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 26(5), 578-611.
Pelegrina, S., Linares, M.C.G., & Casanova, P.F. (2002). Los estilos educativos de los padres y la
competencia académica de los adolescentes. Infancia y aprendizaje, 25(2), 147-168.
Perdue, N.H., Manzeske, D.P., & Estell, D.B. (2009). Early predictors of school engagement:
Exploring the role of peer relationships. Psychology in the Schools, 46(10), 1084-1097.
Pong, S.L., Hao, L., & Gardner, E. (2005). The roles of parenting styles and social capital in the
school performance of immigrant Asian and Hispanic adolescents. Social Science
Quarterly, 86(4), 928-950.
Prevatt, F.F. (2003). The contribution of parenting practices in a risk and resiliency model of
children's adjustment. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(4), 469-480.
Ramos-Díaz, E., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., & Revuelta, L. (2016). Validation of the Spanish
Version of the School Engagement Measure (SEM). The Spanish Journal of Psychology,
19, e86, 1-9.
Ramos-Díaz, E., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Revuelta, L., & Axpe, I. (2016). El rol mediador de la
implicación escolar sobre el apoyo del profesorado y la satisfacción con la vida. European
Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 6(3), 177-191.
Ramos-Díaz, E., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Fernández-Zabala, A., Revuelta, L., & Zuazagoitia, A.
(2016). Apoyo social percibido, autoconcepto e implicación escolar de estudiantes
adolescentes. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 21(2), 339-356.
Rinaldi, C.M., & Howe, N. (2012). Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles and associations with
toddlers’ externalizing, internalizing, and adaptive behaviors. Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 27(2), 266–273.
Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Droguett, L., & Revuelta, L. (2012). School and personal adjustment in
adolescence: The role of academic self-concept and perceived social support. Revista de
Psicodidáctica, 17(2), 397-414.
Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Ramos-Díaz, E., Fernández-Zabala, A., Goñi, E., Esnaola, I., & Goñi,
A. (2016). Contextual and psychological variables in a descriptive model of subjective
well-being and school engagement. International Journal of Clinical and Health
Psychology, 16(2), 166-174.
Rohner, R.P., & Khaleque, A. (2010). Testing central postulates of parental acceptance?rejection
theory (PARTheory): A meta?analysis of cross?cultural studies. Journal of Family Theory
& Review, 2(1), 73-87
Ruiz de Miguel, C. (2001). Factores familiares vinculados al bajo rendimiento. Revista
complutense de educación, 12(1), 81-92.
Simons-Morton, B., & Chen, R. (2009). Peer and parent influences on school engagement among
early adolescents. Youth & Society, 41(1), 3-25.
Sinclair, M.F., Christenson, S.L., Lehr, C.A., & Anderson, A.R. (2003). Facilitating Student
Engagement: Lessons Learned from Check and Connect Longitudinal Studies. California
School Psychologist, 8, 29-41.
Tiller, A.E., Garrison, M.E.B., Block, E.B., Cramer, K., & Tiller, V. (2003) The influence of
parenting styles on children’s cognitive development. Undergrad Res J Hum Sci, 2, 1–21.
Torrente, G., & Vazsonyi, A.T. (2008). Brief Report: The salience of the family in antisocial and
delinquent behaviors among Spanish adolescents. The Journal of Genetic Psychology,
169(2), 187-198.
Veiga, F.H., Bahia, S., Nogueira, J., Melo, M., Caldeira, S., Festas, I.,… Carvalho, C. (2012).
Portuguese adaptation of Students Engagement in School International Scale (SESIS).
Proceedings. In International Conference of Education, Research and innovation
(pp. 3356-3362). International Conference of Education, Research and Innovations.
Wang, M.T., & Eccles, J.S. (2012). Social support matters: Longitudinal effects of social support
on three dimensions of school engagement from middle to high school. Child
Development, 83(3), 877-895.